刊讯｜SSCI 期刊《国际双语教育与双语制》2022年第5-8期

International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism

Volume 25, Issue 5-6, 2022

International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism （SSCI一区，2022 IF：3.165）2022年第5-6期共发文65篇，其中研究性论文39篇，书评25篇，图书资料1篇。研究论文涉及心理语言学、二语习得研究、二语教学研究、社会语言学研究等方面。   

International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism （SSCI一区，2021 IF：3.165）2022年第7-8期共发67篇，其中研究性论文48篇，书评19篇。研究论文涉及心理语言学、二语习得研究、二语教学研究、社会语言学研究等方面。主题包括沉浸式教师教育、应急二语学习、语言政策、翻译实践、语言测试等。

往期推荐：

刊讯｜SSCI 期刊《国际双语教育与双语制》2022年第4期

刊讯｜SSCI 期刊《国际双语教育与双语制》2022年第3期

刊讯｜SSCI 期刊《国际双语教育与双语制》2022年第2期

刊讯｜SSCI期刊《国际双语教育与双语制》2022年第1期

目录（第5-6期）

ARTICLES

■Enriching university students’ use of logical connectors (LCs) in bilingual written scientific argumentation (BWSA)，by Jorge Molina ，Anne-Marie Truscott de Mejía，Pages 1569-1589. 

■Speech and language outcomes in low-SES Spanish-English bilingual preschoolers: the role of maternal education, by Simona Montanari, Robert Mayr, Kaveri Subrahmanyam, Pa-

ges 1590-1608.

■Responsible, competent and with a sense of belonging: an explanation for the purported levelling effect of CLIL，by Ana Halbach, Janina Iwaniec, Pages 1609-1623.

■The phonological skills of bilingual preschool children speaking Polish and Ukrainian in Poland, by Robert Debski, Rafał Młyński & Mariya Redkva, Pages 1624-1640.

■Language dominance in the previously acquired languages modulates rate of third language (L3) development over time: a longitudinal study, by Eloi Puig-Mayenco, Jason Rothman & Susagna Tubau, Pages 1641-1664.

■Bi-literacy and motivation as predictors of bilingual students’ talk during classroom discussion, by Holly L. Griskell, Perla B. Gámez, Nonie K. Lesaux, Pages 1665-1680.

■Translingual practices in a ‘Monolingual’ society: discourses, learners’ subjectivities and language choices, by Reiko Kato & Yuri Kumagai, Pages 1681-1696.

■Translanguaging for varying discourse functions in sociodramatic play: an exploratory multiple case study of young emergent bilinguals, by Alain Bengochea & Mileidis Gort, Pages 1697-1712.

■Heritage language anxiety and major language anxiety experienced by Korean immigrants in Australia, by Min Jung Jee, Pages 1713-1729.

■Testing the Interface Hypothesis: heritage speakers’ perception and production of Spanish subject position with unergative and unaccusative verbs, by Ager Gondra, Pages 1730-1764.

■Investigating the bilingual advantage: the impact of L2 exposure on the social and cognitive skills of monolingually-raised children in bilingual education, by Gloria Chamorro & Vikki Janke, Pages 1765-1781.

■‘Mothers have the power!’: Czech mothers’ language ideologies and management practices in the context of a Czech complementary school in Greece, by Nikos Gogonas & Christina Maligkoudi, Pages 1782-1793.

■Bilingual school education with spoken and signed languages in Europe, by Verena Krausneker, Claudia Becker, Mireille Audeoud & Darina Tarcsiová, Pages 1794-1810.

■‘It’s not my Chinese’: a teacher and her students disrupting and dismantling conventional notions of ‘Chinese’ through translanguaging in a heritage language classroom, by Ming-Hsuan Wu & Genevieve Leung, Pages 1811-1824.

■Bilingual adults practicing multiplication tables – looking into bilingual arithmetic learning, by Christina Kraut & Silvia Pixner, Pages 1825-1837.

■That’s hard! Item difficulty and word characteristics for bilinguals with and without developmental language disorder, by Stephanie McMillen, Jissel B. Anaya, Elizabeth D. Peña, Lisa M. Bedore & Elisa Barquin, Pages 1838-1856.

■Assessing preschool English learners’ receptive and expressive language ability to inform instruction, by Ahyoung Alicia Kim, Mark Chapman, Gordon Blaine West, Bingjie Zheng & M. Elizabeth Cranley, Pages 1857-1876.

■The (heterogeneous) effect of CLIL on content-subject and cognitive acquisition in primary education: evidence from a counterfactual analysis in Italy, by Simone Virdia, Pages 1877-1893.

■Semantic priming and reading skills among Spanish-speaking dual language learners, by J. Marc Goodrich & Sergio Leiva, Pages 1894-1912.

■Why learning foreign words is hard: evidence of shallower encoding for non-native than native sounding words, by Marta Marecka, Alison McDonald, Gillian Madden & Tim Fosker, Pages 1913-1926.

■The prevalence of bilingual interaction in peer-learning， by Martin Schastak, Jasmin Decristan, Dominique Rauch, Valentina Reitenbach, Pages 1961-1975.

■Mandarin vocabulary growth, teacher qualifications and teacher talk in child heritage language learners, by He Sun, Marjolijn Verspoor, Pages 1976-1991.

■Second language reading and writing in relation to first language, vocabulary knowledge, and learning backgrounds, by Minkyung Kim, Scott A. Crossley, Byeong-Kweon Kim, Pages 1992-2005.

■CLIL: graphic organisers and concept maps for noun identification within bilingual primary education natural science subject textbooks, by José Luis Gómez Ramos, José Luis Palazón Fernández,Juan Lirio Castro,Isabel Mª Gómez-Barreto, Pages 2006-2017.

■Development of the CECER-DLL child and family questionnaire: a new tool for documenting the language and literacy experiences of Latino/a dual language learners, by Carol Scheffner Hammer, Lauren M. Cycyk, Shelley E. Scarpino, Karen A. Jury, Brook E. Sawyer, Pages 2018-2040.

■Business English students’ multifaceted and contradictory perceptions of intercultural communication education (ICE) at a Chinese University, by Ashley Simpson, Fred Dervin, Jian Tao, Pages 2041-2057.

■Historical reasoning in an undergraduate CLIL course: students’ progression and the role of language proficiency, by Kristin A. Sendur, Jannet van Drie, Carla van Boxtel, Kees-Jan Kan, Pages 2058-2074.

■Translanguaging or unequal languaging? Unfolding the plurilingual discourse of English medium instruction policy in Nepal’s public schools, by Pramod K. Sah, Guofang Li, Pages 2075-2094.

■The similarity of phonological skills underpinning reading ability in shallow and deep orthographies: a bilingual perspective, by Victor Martinelli, Bernardette Brincat, Pages 2095-2108.

■At the intersection of culture, bilingualism, and mathematics: breaking language norms in a seventh-grade dual-language classroom for biliteracy development, by A. Garza Ayala, Pages 2109-2123.

■Grassroots resistance and activism to one-size-fits-all and separate-but-equal policies by 90:10 dual language schools en comunidades latinas, by Juan A. Freire, M. Garrett Delavan & Verónica E. Valdez, Pages 2124-2141.

■Ciencias bilingües: how dual language teachers cultivate equity in dual language classrooms, by Melissa A. Navarro Martell, Pages 2142-2158.

■Lessons learned from exploring the potential of California's mini-corps tutors as future bilingual teachers, by Margarita Jimenez-Silva, Nadeen Ruiz, Samantha Smith, Pages 2159-2171.

■Developing subject knowledge co-construction and specific language use in a technology-enhanced CLIL programme: effectiveness and productive patterns, by Ke Zhao, Jiming Zhou, Bin Zou, Pages 2172-2185.

■Towards a multilingual approach in assessing writing: holistic, analytic and cross-linguistic perspectives, by María Orcasitas-Vicandi, Pages 2186-2207.

■Measuring the multilingual reality: lessons from classrooms in Delhi and Hyderabad, by Amy Lightfoot, Anusha Balasubramanian, Ianthi Tsimpli, Lina Mukhopadhyay, Jeanine Treffers-Daller, Pages 2208-2228.

■Is bilingualism associated with better working memory capacity? A meta-analysis, by Catherine Monnier, Julie Boiché, Pauline Armandon, Sophie Baudoin, Stéphanie Bellocchi, Pages 2229-2255.

■Bilingual education and beyond: how school settings shape the Chinese Yi minority’s socio-cultural attachments, by Lijuan Wang & Elina Lehtomäki, Pages 2256-2268.

■Effects of Spanish vocabulary knowledge on the English word knowledge and listening comprehension of bilingual students, by Doris Luft Baker, Betsy D. McCoach, Sharon Ware, Michael D. Coyne, Susan M. Rattan, Pages 2269-2283.

BOOK REVIEWS

■Bilingual learners and social equity: critical approaches to systemic functional linguistics, edited by Ruth Harman, Cham, Springer International Publishing, 2018, xvii+254pp., €109.99 (hardback), ISBN: 978-3-319-60951-5, reviewed by Minchen Wang & Wei He,  Pages 1927-1930.

■English language teaching in South America, policy, preparation and practices, edited by Lía D. Kamhi-Stein, Gabriel Díaz Maggioli, and Luciana C. Oliveira, Bristol, UK, Multilingual Matters, 2017, xiv+248, EUR €44.95, ISBN: 9781-1-78309-797-5,  reviewed by Marisol Massó, Pages 1930-1934.

■Teacher leadership for social change in bilingual and bicultural education, by Deborah K. Palmer, Bristol, UK, Multilingual Matters, 2018, vii + 198 pp., $39.95 (paperback), ISBN 9781788921428, reviewed by Betty Alicia Cárdenas, Pages 1934-1937.

■Bilingual Cognition and Language: the state of the science across its subfields, edited by David Miller, Fatih Bayram, Jason Rothman, and Ludovica Serratrice, Amsterdam/Philadelphia, John Benjamins Publishing Company,2018, vi+403 pp., €36.00 (paperback), ISBN: 978-90-272-00167, reviewed by Weihong Lou & Guiying Jiang, Pages1937-1940.

■Multilingual Sydney, edited by Alice Chik, Phil Benson, and Robyn Moloney, London, Routledge, 2018, 240 pp., $39.95, ISBN-10: 1138592668, reviewed by Jinjin Lu, Pages 1940-1943. 

■Translation and translanguaging, by Mike Baynham and Tong King Lee, Oxon, Routledge, 2019, 199 pp., £29.99 (ppk), ISBN 9781138067042, reviewed by Ping Wang & Chen Han, Pages 1943-1947.

■Literacy unbound: multiliterate, multilingual, multimodal, by Toni Dobinson and Katie Dunworth, Switzerland, Springer, 2019, 249 pp., $ 84 (paperback), ISBN 978-3-030-01254-0, reviewed by Qiaoya Huang & Liping Chen, Pages 1947-1951.

■A journey in languages and cultures: the life of a bicultural bilingual, by François Grosjean, New York, Oxford University Press, 2019, 224 pp., $35.00 (Hardback), ISBN: 9780198754947, reviewed by Meizi Piao, Pages 1951-1954.

■Adult minority language learning: motivation, identity and target variety, by Colin J. Flynn, Bristol, UK, Multilingual Matters, 2020,1+264 pp., $149.95 (hardback), ISBN 9781788927031, reviewed by Sergio Loza & Valeria Ochoa, Pages 1954-1957

■Visualising Multilingual Lives: More Than Words by Kalaja, P. and Melo-Pfeifer, S., Bristol, UK; NBN, Blue Ridge Summit, PA, USA, Multilingual Matters, 2019, 312 pp., 39.95 GBP/59.95 USD/54.95 EUR, ISBN: 9781788922593，reviewed by Alejandro Jaume-Losa, Pages 2303-2305.

■Tension and contention in language education for Latinxs in the United States Experience and Ethics in Teaching and Learning, by Glenn Martínez and Robert W. Train. Center for Applied Linguistics, Routledge, New York, 2020, 212 pp.,(Paperback) US$39.16. ISBN 9781138225121, reviewed by María Luisa Parra Velasco, Pages 2305-2307.

■The emotional rollercoaster of language teaching edited by Christina Gkonou, Jean-Marc Dewaele and Jim King,  Bristol, Multilingual Matters, 2020, xx+300 pp., ￡34.95 (Paperback), ISBN 9781788928328, reviewed by Xinfeng Xie, Pages 2307-2310.

■Doing SLA research with implications for the classroom: reconciling methodological demands and pedagogical applicability edited by Robert M. DeKeyser and Goretti Prieto Botana, Amsterdam, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2019, vi+219 pp., US $143.00 (eBook), ISBN 978-90-272-6265-3, reviewed by Jinfen Xu,Shanshan Zhang, Pages 2310-2312.

■Internationalising learning in higher education: the challenges of English as a medium of instruction edited by María Luisa Carrió-Pastor, Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2020, xiv+228 pp., $89.59 (paperback), ISBN 978-3-030-21586-6, reviewed by Ali Derakhshan, Pages 2313-2315.

■English as a Lingua Franca: the pragmatic perspective by Istvan Kecskes, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019, viii+261 pp., ISBN 9781107103801, reviewed by Guohai Liao & Geling Han, Pages 2315-2318.

■Transforming schooling for second language learners: theoretical insights, policies, pedagogies and practices by Mariana Pacheco,P. Zitlali Morales, and Colleen Hamilton (Eds), Charlotte, NC, Information Age Publishing , 2019, 296 pp., US$45.99 (paperback), ISBN: 978-1-64113-507-8, reviewed by Ana Mireya Díaz, Pages 2319-2321.

■Plurilingual pedagogies: critical and creative endeavors for equitable language in education, edited by S. M. C. Lau and S. Van Viegen, Cham, Springer, 2020, xiv+339 pp.,  €109,99 (hardcover), ISBN 978-3-030-36982-8; €93,08 (eBook), ISBN 978-3-030-36983-5, reviewed by Ningyang Chen, Pages 2321-2324.

■Voices of a city market: an ethnography Blackledge, A. and Creese, A. Bristol: Multilingual Matters, 2019, 208 pp., US $ 35, ISBN 9781788925112, reviewed by Anuja Sarda & Ameya Sawadkar, Pages 2325-2327.

■Innovation in language teaching and learning: the case of Japan edited by Hayo Reinders, Stephen Ryan, and Sachiko Nakamura, Cham, Switzerland, Palgrave Macmillan, 2019, xvi+295 pp., $139.99 (hbk), ISBN 978-3-030-12566-0, reviewed by Hamzeh Moradi,  Pages 2327-2330.

■Complexity perspectives on researching language learner and teacher psychology edited by Richard J. Sampson & Richard S. Pinner, Bristol, Multilingual  Matters, 2020, 320 pp., £39.95 (paperback), ISBN 9781788923545, reviewed by Lisa Marie Brinkmann, Pages 2330-2333.

■Multilingualism and translanguaging in Chinese language classrooms by Danping Wang, Cham, Palgrave Macmillan, 2019, xv+127 pp., £43.51 (hardback), ISBN: 9783030025281, reviewed by Huang Zibi, Pages 2333-2336. 

■Dual language education: teaching and leading in two languages edited by David E. DeMatthews and Elena Izquierdo, Switzerland, Springer, 2019, 213 pp., US $119.99 (hardcover), ISBN-13: 978-3030108304, reviewed by Qiaoya Huang & Liping Chen, Pages 2336-2340.

■Translanguaging for emergent bilinguals: inclusive teaching in the linguistically diverse classroom by Danling Fu, Xenia Hadjioannou and Xiaodi Zhou, New York, Teacher College Press, 2019, 144 pp., US$ 89 (hardback), ISBN: 978-0-8077-6113-7, reviewed by Qiuhong Ju, Jie Hu, Pages 2340-2343.

■Bilingualism and bilingual education: politics, policies and practices in a globalized society, edited by B. Gloria Guzmán Johannessen, Cham, Springer Nature AG, 2019, xi + 290 pp., $139.99 (paperback), ISBN 978-3030054953, reviewed by Gaoxin Li, Jinfen Xu, Pages 2344-2346.

ARTICLE COMMENTARY

■Clitics in language contact, by Antje Muntendam & Pieter Muysken, Pages 2284-2292.

NOTE

■Validity of parents’ classifications of bilingual children’s language dominance, by Elena Nicoladis, Anastassija Mimovic, Pages 2293-2302.

摘要

Enriching university students’ use of logical connectors (LCs) in bilingual written scientific argumentation (BWSA)

Pablo Antonio Archila, Vice-Presidency of Research and Creation, Universidad de los Andes Bogotá, Colombia

Jorge Molina, Department of Biological Sciences, Universidad de los Andes Bogotá, Colombia

Anne-Marie Truscott de Mejía, School of Education, Universidad de los Andes Bogotá, Colombia

Abstract Bilingual scientific literacy (BSL) is one of the educational domains gaining prominence in twenty-first century societies. University bilingual science courses are legitimate and desirable scenarios for the promotion of bilingual written scientific argumentation (BWSA) as part of BSL. Recent studies indicate that the use of ‘logical connectors’ (LCs) or ‘linking words’ is a critical aspect of BWSA. The problem is that very little evidence is available on how to enrich university students’ use of LCs in BWSA. The goal of this study was to determine how a formative assessment-based pedagogical strategy (FAPS) could help students enrich the use of LCs. We examined the BWSA produced by 70 students (34 females and 36 males, 15–27 years old) in Colombia during a university Spanish-English bilingual science course. The findings show that the strategy provided participants with opportunities to enrich the use of LCs in their written argumentation in Spanish and in English. Finally, the potential implications for university bilingual education are discussed.

Key words Bilingual scientific literacy; bilingual written scientific argumentation; formative assessment; logical connectors; university bilingual science education

Speech and language outcomes in low-SES Spanish-English bilingual preschoolers: the role of maternal education

Simona Montanari, Department of Child and Family Studies, California State University, Los Angeles, CA, USA

Robert Mayr, Centre for Speech and Language Therapy and Hearing Science, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, UK

Kaveri Subrahmanyam, Psychology, California State University, Los Angeles, CA, USA

Abstract This paper presents a longitudinal examination of Spanish and English phonological, lexical, and morpho-syntactic abilities in 20 low-SES bilingual preschoolers with mothers who had either completed primary or secondary education in Spanish in their country of origin, Mexico. We focused on the link between maternal education and the following spontaneous production measures: (1) phonological accuracy as measured by Percent of Consonants Correct-Revised, (2) lexical variety as measured by Number of Different Words, and (3) utterance length as measured by Mean Length of Utterance in words; the relation between maternal education and spontaneous production was examined both (a) at preschool entry, when children were on average 3;6, and (b) a year later, after one year of exposure to the majority language (English) and culture. The results showed that although children of more educated mothers performed significantly better on all English measures than children of less educated mothers, maternal education was not related to Spanish outcomes. The same differences persisted a year later. These results suggest that maternal education may play a different, but long-lasting role in English compared to Spanish development possibly due to language input differences attributable to distinct cultural values and practices associated with different languages.

Key words Maternal education; speech and language outcomes; Spanish-English bilingualism; bilingual preschoolers; longitudinal

Responsible, competent and with a sense of belonging: an explanation for the purported levelling effect of CLIL

Ana Halbach, Departamento de Filología Moderna, Universidad de Alcalá, Alcalá de Henares, Spain

Janina Iwaniec, Department of Education, University of Bath, Bath, UK

Abstract Whilst CLIL research has flourished and showed some gains for CLIL learners, for example in motivation, there is little consensus about how it affects students from different social strata. The British Council ‘English Impact’ study (Shepherd and Ainsworth 2017, English Impact. An evaluation of English language capability. https://www.britishcouncil.es/sites/default

/files/british-council-english-impact-report-madrid-web-opt.pdf) has recently uncovered that CLIL contributes to the levelling of SES (socio-economic status) differences between students and leads to high levels of motivation in all students. In this study, we aim to follow up on these findings by exploring the factors that account for the curbed impact of SES in bilingual schools. To this end, 138 teachers from bilingual and non-bilingual schools filled in the TALIS questionnaire (OECD, 2013, Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) 2013 Teacher Questionnaire. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/e-

ducation/school/TALIS-2013-Teacher-questionnaire.pdf ) and 20 teachers were interviewed. Whereas questionnaire data reveals few perceived differences between students from the two types of schools, interviewees did point to differences in characteristics of students from bilingual and non-bilingual schools and the type of parental support they receive. The findings point towards the creation of a learning environment in CLIL programmes that satisfies the need for autonomy, competence and relatedness as reasons behind increased levels of motivation and the reduced impact of students’ SES on their performance.

The phonological skills of bilingual preschool children speaking Polish and Ukrainian in Poland

Robert Debski, Centre for Polish Language and Culture in the World, Jagiellonian University in Kraków, Kraków, Poland

Rafał Młyński, Centre for Polish Language and Culture in the World, Jagiellonian University in Kraków, Kraków, Poland

Mariya Redkva, Department of Ukrainian Studies, Jagiellonian University in Kraków, Kraków, Poland

Abstract The extent of quantitative and qualitative differences in phonological development between bilingual children and their monolingual counterparts remains unresolved, especially with regard to typologically-related languages. The current study used a comparative research design to examine the phonological skills of preschool children speaking Polish and Ukrainian, a pair of Slavic languages hitherto unexplored in this context. It involved 57 typically-developing children aged 4;0–6;0, i.e. 18 bilingual children speaking Polish and Ukrainian in Poland, 19 monolingual Polish children in Poland and 20 monolingual Ukrainian children in Ukraine. The qualitative and quantitative analyses of data collected through single-word elicitation tests involved between-group comparisons of bilingual and monolingual children's speech and within-group comparisons of the bilingual children's phonological systems. Results paint a complex picture of bilingual phonological development with mostly typical patterns, a strong crosslinguistic influence, and rare processes which are difficult to interpret. Authors hypothesise that such general patterns of phonological process use might be typical of bilingual development involving typologically-related and geographically close languages. Findings underscore the need to assess bilingual children in all their languages and dialects. Errors which cannot be interpreted through either rules of normal development or crosslinguistic interaction could be a sign of disorder.

Key words Early bilingualism; bilingual acquisition; bilingual phonological development; Polish-Ukrainian bilingualism; bilingual speech assessment

Language dominance in the previously acquired languages modulates rate of third language (L3) development over time: a longitudinal study

Eloi Puig-Mayenco, School of Education, Communication and Society, King's College London, London, UK

Jason Rothman, Department of Language and Culture, UiT the Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway; Centro de Ciencia Cognitiva (C3), Universidad Nebrija, Madrid, Spain

Susagna Tubau, Departament de Filologia Anglesa i Germanística, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain

Abstract This study examines the extent to which extra-linguistic factors such as language dominance, order of acquisition and language of instruction are deterministic for multilingual transfer selection and subsequent development. We test two groups of Catalan-Spanish bilinguals acquiring English as an L3 in a controlled setting. We first examine judgements and interpretations of negative quantifiers and negative polarity items after 16 hours of exposure, establishing the participants own baselines for development. Eleven months later, we test those that continued learning English to explore what factors modulate their development. Data suggest that holistic structural similarity is the most deterministic factor for initial transfer selection. Results of TIME 2 reveal that developmental sequencing, however, is dynamic and non-uniform, differing at the individual level by language-dominance in Catalan or Spanish.

Bi-literacy and motivation as predictors of bilingual students’ talk during classroom discussion

Holly L. Griskell, Department of Psychology, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA

Perla B. Gámez, Department of Psychology, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA

Nonie K. Lesaux, Harvard Graduate School of Education, Cambridge, MA, USA

Abstract This study investigated the relations between bilingual students’ amount of talk during classroom discussion, motivation, and self-reported bi-literacy skills (i.e. reading, writing skills in their native and school languages). Sixth-grade Spanish-English bilinguals in the United States (N = 121; M age = 12.119 years old; SD = 0.358) reported on their reading and writing skills in both Spanish and English. Self-reported motivation was assessed using the Motivation for Classroom Discussion Questionnaire (MCD-Q). Audio-recordings of bilinguals’ speech during their English Language Arts class period were used to measure amount of talk during classroom discussion. Results demonstrated that the relation between motivation and amount of talk during classroom discussion varied as a function of self-reported bi-literacy. At high levels of motivation, bi-literate students were more likely to engage in greater amounts of talk during classroom discussion than their non-bi-literate peers.

Key words Bi-literacy; bilinguals; motivation; amount of talk; classroom discussion

Translingual practices in a ‘Monolingual’ society: discourses, learners’ subjectivities and language choices

Reiko Kato, Institute of Liberal Arts, Kyushu Institute of Technology, Iizuka, Japan

Yuri Kumagai, East Asian Languages and Literatures, Smith College, Northampton, MA, USA

Abstract This study explores how Japanese EFL students engaged in translingual practices during a telecollaborative project that connected two college classrooms in the US and Japan. The project aimed at encouraging the students’ creative uses of languages, promoting an appreciation for their multiple linguistic resources, and nurturing their sense of ownership of languages informed by translingual practices. Contrary to our expectations, students in Japan exhibited great efforts to write in monolingual English and/or Japanese, which prompted us to investigate the reasons behind their language choices. Based on data analyses drawing on poststructural theory of subjectivities, we argue that the students’ language practices were shaped by local discourses that value privileged English, single language uses, and embodiment of ‘Japaneseness.’ As a result, students in Japan maintained single language uses in order to represent themselves in a positive light. Accordingly, they did not appreciate the language plurality demonstrated by their partners in the US. This result led us to contend that creating a local community that recognizes and appreciates linguistic diversity is essential in order for students to enjoy using multiple linguistic resources creatively and freely, and to gain confidence to claim ownership of their languages.

Key words Translingual practice; telecollaboration; subjectivities; monolingualism; Japan

Translanguaging for varying discourse functions in sociodramatic play: an exploratory multiple case study of young emergent bilinguals 

Alain Bengochea, College of Education, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, NV, USA

Mileidis Gort, School of Education, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA

Abstract This exploratory multiple case study investigated how preschool-age, Spanish-English emergent bilingual (EB) children with diverse language profiles leverage their discursive resources to engage with peers and teachers in sociodramatic play (SDP) interactions. Data were collected over the course of one academic year, including weekly video recordings of child-peer and child–teacher interactions in SDP activity. A dynamic conceptualization of bilingualism and a community of practice perspective guided our cross-case analysis of three EBs, leading to the identification of three themes characterizing children’s oral discourse functions – narrating action/events, requesting/inviting, and asserting position – and varying languaging patterns in SDP. Sample excerpts illustrate the ways in which children assembled and orchestrated fluid and agentive translingual practices to extend, elicit, and justify play ideas, as well as to bridge communication with peers.

Key words childhood bilingualism; classroom discourse; sociodramatic play; translanguaging; oral discourse functions

Heritage language anxiety and major language anxiety experienced by Korean immigrants in Australia

Min Jung Jee, School of Languages and Cultures, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia

Abstract This study investigated the levels of heritage language anxiety (HLA) and major language anxiety (MLA) experienced by three generations of Korean immigrants (i.e. first, 1.5 and second generations) in their daily life contexts (i.e. with family members, with friends and with/around native speakers) in Australia. The study also examined the language background variables (i.e. age at exposure to Korean/English, self-rated Korean/English proficiency, and frequency of Korean/English use) and their relationships with HLA and MLA. All three generations showed relatively low levels of HLA in their daily life contexts and rated their Korean proficiency as high, implying that Korean language or HL has been well maintained by Korean immigrants in Australia. While the first-generation Korean participants expressed moderate to high levels of MLA, the 1.5- and second-generation groups showed very low levels of MLA. Self-rated language proficiency and frequency of language use showed strong and significant correlations with language anxiety. Pedagogical implications for heritage language (i.e. Korean) learning for 1.5- and second-generation Koreans, as well as major language (i.e. English) education for the first-generation Koreans, are discussed.

Key words Language anxiety; heritage language anxiety; majority language anxiety; immigrant context; Korean immigrants

Testing the Interface Hypothesis: heritage speakers’ perception and production of Spanish subject position with unergative and unaccusative verbs

Ager Gondra, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA

Abstract The Interface Hypothesis proposes that the pragmatic-discursive interface with syntax is more vulnerable to crosslinguistic influence than the syntactic-semantic interface [Tsimpli, Ianthi, and Antonella Sorace. 2006. “Differentiating Interfaces: L2 Performance in Syntax- Semantics and Syntax-Discourse Phenomena.“ In Proceedings of the 30th Annual Boston Conference on Language Development, edited by D. Bamman, T. Magnitskaia, and C. Zaller, 653–664. Somerville: Cascadilla Press]. The present study tests this hypothesis by analyzing the contrast between preverbal and postverbal subject position with unergative and unaccusative verbs in the Spanish of heritage language (HL) speakers. The results of a grammaticality judgment task and a short-answer task suggest that the syntactic-semantic interface is as vulnerable to the influence of English as the pragmatic-discursive interface for Spanish HL speakers. This inquiry also considers how formal instruction targeting the flexibility of word order in Spanish and its effect on the discursive context might impact the acquisition of subject position distinction with these verbs among HL learners of Spanish. Based upon the negligible effects of a pedagogical intervention conducted in an intermediate-level Spanish HL course in which the present participants were enrolled, both the syntactic-semantic interface and the pragmatic-discursive interface appeared impervious to formal instruction targeting flexible word order.

Key words Interface Hypothesis; Spanish as heritage language; subject placement; unergative and unaccusative verbs; syntactic-semantic interface; pragmatic-discursive interface

Investigating the bilingual advantage: the impact of L2 exposure on the social and cognitive skills of monolingually-raised children in bilingual education

Gloria Chamorro, English Language and Linguistics Department, School of European Culture and Languages, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK

Vikki Janke, English Language and Linguistics Department, School of European Culture and Languages, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK

Abstract Most research reporting that bilingual children exhibit enhanced cognitive skills and social awareness relative to their monolingual peers focusses on children raised and educated bilingually, making it difficult to pinpoint the degree of second language exposure necessary for such advantages to materialise. The current study measures the social and cognitive skills of Spanish children educated bilingually yet raised monolingually to explore (a) whether bilingual education alone confers advantages, and (b) whether greater second language exposure is key to producing them. It compares three groups of monolingually-raised children in their first year of primary education (i.e. 6–7 years old): one group educated in mainstream ‘monolingual’ education, one group enrolled in English-Spanish bilingual education with a ratio of 40–60 English-Spanish exposure, and one group enrolled in English-Spanish education with a ratio of 30–70 English-Spanish exposure. After one year of primary education, children attending bilingual education scored significantly higher than monolingual children on a sub-set of cognitive (selective attention; response inhibition) and social (communication; co-operation) skills, with the higher exposure bilingual school outperforming the lower exposure bilingual school on some of these measures.

Key words Bilingual education; cognitive skills; social skills; L2 exposure; Spanish; English

‘Mothers have the power!’: Czech mothers’ language ideologies and management practices in the context of a Czech complementary school in Greece

Nikos Gogonas, Faculty of English Language and Literature, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece

Christina Maligkoudi, School of Modern Greek, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece

Abstract Complementary schools are an important research area of Second Language Acquisition study, involving issues of identity, linguistic socialization, second language acquisition, linguistic hegemony, etc. This article looks at the Czech Complementary School in Thessaloniki, whose main purpose is the transmission of the Czech language and culture to generations to come. At the same time, the article attempts to highlight the attitudes, identities and language management practices of mothers involved in Czech schooling and the process of language learning by their children. More specifically, the focus of the article is on mothers’ language ideologies and management practices, i.e. on the intersection of research on complementary schooling and Family Language Policy. The role of mothers as custodians of the heritage language is highlighted. The research is based on ethnographic data: interviews, class observations and student reflection (via diary) on children's language use. The results show that these mothers are making efforts to transmit Czech to their children for reasons of culture, identity and ‘good motherhood’.

Key words Family language policy; complementary schools; Czech; mothers; language maintenance

Bilingual school education with spoken and signed languages in Europe

Verena Krausneker, Department of Linguistics, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria

Claudia Becker, Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany

Mireille Audeoud, Center for Research and Development, University of Applied Sciences of Special Needs Education Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland

Darina Tarcsiová, Department of Special Education Studies, Comenius University Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovakia

Abstract At least since the UN Convention on the Rights of People with Disabilities, deaf children worldwide have a right to education not only in the spoken and written language of their country, but also in the national sign language. The pedagogical use of a sign language in European schools for the deaf began in the 1980s and has since evolved significantly. This paper presents a survey of 39 European countries that documents the status of bimodal bilingual education using a spoken and a signed language. Data was collected through an expert survey on the three dimensions policies, practices and cultures of bimodal bilingual education and an analysis of relevant legal documents. The results reveal that bimodal bilingual education is increasingly implemented in deaf education but is not fully established all over Europe. In many countries, bimodal bilingual education is limited to special schools and is rarely offered in inclusive mainstream schools. Implementation processes are similar across Europe: Programmes are primarily initiated by parents, teachers or the deaf community but educational policies lag behind the practices at schools. Legal foundations (e.g. curricula and professionalization for the use of sign languages) guarantee the sustainability and quality of bimodal bilingual education.

Key words Sign language; bimodal bilingual education; deaf education; language policies; inclusion; legal foundations for sign language

‘It’s not my Chinese’: a teacher and her students disrupting and dismantling conventional notions of ‘Chinese’ through translanguaging in a heritage language classroom

Ming-Hsuan Wu, TESOL & Bilingual Education, Adelphi University, Garden City, USA

Genevieve Leung, Department of Rhetoric and Language, University of San Francisco, San Francisco, USA

Abstract Translanguaging theory re-conceptualizes the linguistic systems and practices of multilinguals as well as multilingual classroom pedagogies. While many studies have documented translanguaging in bilingual classrooms, there is little discussion about how translanguaging can advance the field of heritage language education. This paper shares findings from a qualitative investigation of a Mandarin heritage program in the U.S. enrolling ethnic Chinese students from various Chinese language backgrounds. Drawing on ethnographic fieldnotes and interviews, we argue that the teacher’s flexible use of linguistic resources provided the basis for productive classroom exercises among heritage students who struggled with Mandarin as an imposed identity. Through activities that enabled students to use multiple Chinese languages, students critically examined the diversity of Chinese languages within the U.S. context. This, in turn, facilitated their Mandarin learning in the classroom, as they actively engaged in disrupting and dismantling conventional notions of ‘Chinese.’ The teacher also reflected on her translanguaging practices and the challenges she faced in class. While Mandarin is currently heavily emphasized in the language teaching arenas, translanguaging as a pedagogical heuristic helps create space to liberate the voices of these language minority students who are often left out under the generic category of heritage ‘Chinese’ speakers.

Key words Heritage language; translanguaging; language maintenance; metalinguistic knowledge

Bilingual adults practicing multiplication tables – looking into bilingual arithmetic learning

Christina Kraut, Department for Psychology and Medical Sciences, Medical Informatics and Technology, UMIT – Private University for Health Sciences, Hall in Tyrol, Austria

Silvia Pixner, Department for Psychology and Medical Sciences, Medical Informatics and Technology, UMIT – Private University for Health Sciences, Hall in Tyrol, Austria

Abstract The importance of language in mathematics education becomes increasingly obvious, as multilingual learners are not an exception nowadays. But how can language dominance and the language of first or later instruction affect arithmetic training in adults? 101 bilingual adults whose first and dominant language was German (LM+ and L1) and who spoke English as their second language (L2) were tested. Participants were assigned to three different training groups and either practiced basic multiplications in German, English or both languages. In a verification paradigm, reaction times on solving multiplication problems in German and English respectively were recorded before and after the training. Results showed a strong influence of the language adult bilinguals initially acquired arithmetic knowledge in (German). German items were overall solved more quickly than English counterparts, irrespective of the language items were specifically trained in. English were affected by differing training conditions with respect to training effects. This leads to the consideration of various factors including language proficiency levels, the language of first mathematics instruction in early school years as well as the language of mathematics instruction in later learning contexts, in understanding bilingual arithmetic learning.

Key words Bilinguals; language dominance; education; LM+; arithmetic facts

That’s hard! Item difficulty and word characteristics for bilinguals with and without developmental language disorder

Stephanie McMillen, Department of Communication Sciences & Disorders, Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York

Jissel B. Anaya, Department of Speech, Language and Hearing Sciences, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA

Elizabeth D. Peña, School of Education, University of California, Irvine, USA

Lisa M. Bedore, College of Public Health, Department of Communication Sciences & Disorders, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA

Elisa Barquin,  Applied Linguistics, Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain

Abstract Research has investigated how lexical-semantic and participant factors impact word learning in young children and adults. However, limited information pertaining to expressive vocabulary development exists for school-aged bilinguals—particularly those with developmental language disorder (DLD). Cross-linguistic differences in the semantic characteristics of words may impact the types of cues available for constructing expressive vocabulary knowledge. To address this gap, we evaluated the relationships between intrinsic factors (age, language ability), extrinsic factors (L1 exposure), and word characteristics (e.g. imageability, concreteness) with item difficulty and expressive vocabulary knowledge in school-aged Spanish-English bilinguals with and without DLD. While we found similar patterns of associations between item difficulty and word characteristics across language ability groups, divergent predictive patterns emerged across languages and across ability groups. Educators supporting the development of bilingual students’ expressive vocabulary knowledge must account for not only cultural differences across students, but also characteristics inherent to words.

Key words Bilingualism; developmental language disorder; expressive vocabulary; item difficulty; word characteristics; intrinsic and extrinsic factors

Assessing preschool English learners’ receptive and expressive language ability to inform instruction

Ahyoung Alicia Kim, WIDA, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, USA

Mark Chapman, WIDA, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, USA

Gordon Blaine West, WIDA, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, USA

Bingjie Zheng, WIDA, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, USA

M. Elizabeth Cranley, WIDA, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, USA

Abstract This study explores how preschool educators could assess dual language learners’ (DLLs) English language abilities using formative instruments in school settings. It specifically examines (1) DLLs’ receptive and expressive language proficiencies measured using the instruments and (2) educators’ perceived usefulness of them for informing instruction. Participants were 139 preschool DLLs (M = 4;9) and 37 preschool educators from four countries (Argentina, Chile, China, and US). DLLs’ families completed a questionnaire on the child’s language background, indicating the child’s home language and English abilities. Educators measured DLLs’ English proficiency using adult–child co-play activities and language observations. Afterwards, educators completed a survey regarding the usefulness of these instruments. Findings show that DLLs’ receptive English language ability was higher than and significantly correlated with their expressive ability in their home language and English. Also, parents’ estimate of their children’s English language ability was similar to that of educators. The correlation between DLLs’ home language and English proficiencies was statistically significant, but low, indicating that the two languages do not necessarily develop together. Educators found the formative instruments helpful in understanding DLLs’ language proficiency and believed that such an understanding could inform their instruction. Results provide implications for assessing DLLs’ English language ability using age appropriate instruments.

Key words Preschool; dual language learners; language assessment

The (heterogeneous) effect of CLIL on content-subject and cognitive acquisition in primary education: evidence from a counterfactual analysis in Italy

Simone Virdia, Provincial Institute of Educational Research and Experimentation (IPRASE), Rovereto, Italy

Abstract This article claims to provide evidence on whether content-subject and cognitive achievement vary in CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning) and non-CLIL classrooms in the framework of a newly introduced CLIL programme in Italy. A standardized and validated science test (TIMSS) was administered to a sample 988 fourth-grade students. The sample was divided into three groups: one group learning science through English, one group through German, and a control group in which the students’ school language, Italian, was employed. In our study the lack of taking into account causal relations which prevails in many prior studies is reduced by employing a counterfactual design. Results show a slightly negative effect of CLIL on science learning in both treatment groups in comparison to the control group. However, for both CLIL groups the negative effect exclusively pertains to the learning of purely content-related knowledge, while there are no differences between the non-CLIL and the two CLIL groups with regard to two other cognitive domains: application of knowledge and reasoning. Moreover, the paper shows significantly negative CLIL effects only among low language achievers and students from less advantaged parental backgrounds.

Key words Content and Language Integrated Learning; science competencies; cognitive competencies; counterfactual; inequality of educational opportunity; CLIL

Semantic priming and reading skills among Spanish-speaking dual language learners

J. Marc Goodrich, Department of Special Education and Communication Disorders, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, USA

Sergio Leiva, Department of Special Education and Communication Disorders, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, USA

Abstract Substantial research among bilingual adults indicates that exposure to words primes other semantically related words within and across languages, as well as the direct translation equivalents [e.g. Chen and Ng 1989. “Semantic Facilitation and Translation Priming Effects in Chinese-English Bilinguals.” Memory & Cognition 17: 454–462]. However, there is less research on semantic and translation priming among bilingual children. The purpose of this study was to evaluate semantic priming effects as an indicator of underlying lexical quality among Spanish-speaking dual language learners (DLLs) in the U.S., including examination of whether semantic and translation priming effects were related to children’s reading-related skills. Ninety-five Spanish-speaking DLLs in second and fourth grade completed an eye-tracking semantic priming task along with measures of English and Spanish reading-related skills. Results indicated that there were consistent translation priming effects, with observed translation priming stronger from English to Spanish than from Spanish to English. Additionally, there were consistent within-English semantic priming effects. Results suggested that semantic priming effects were stronger for children with higher levels of English vocabulary and reading comprehension than they were for children with lower levels of English vocabulary and reading comprehension. Findings are discussed in the context of theoretical models of bilingual language processing, as well as the lexical quality hypothesis [e.g. Perfetti 2007. “Reading Ability: Lexical Quality to Comprehension.” Scientific Studies of Reading 11: 357–383].

Key words Eye-tracking; dual language learners; semantic priming; reading

Why learning foreign words is hard: evidence of shallower encoding for non-native than native sounding words

Marta Marecka, School of Psychology, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland; Institute of Psychology, Jagiellonian University, Cracow, Poland

Alison McDonald, School of Psychology, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland

Gillian Madden, School of Psychology, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland

Tim Fosker, School of Psychology, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland

Abstract Research suggests that second language words are learned faster when they are similar in phonological structure or accent to the words of an individual’s first language. Many major theories suggest this happens because of differences in frequency of exposure and context between first and second language words. Here, we examine the independent contribution of accent and phonological structure on the speed of word learning and on the depth of semantic encoding while controlling for frequency of exposure and context. Fifteen participants learned novel words associated with abstract shapes in a paired associates task. The words systematically varied in their accent and phonological structure. Learning speed was measured for each word and the depth of semantic encoding was measured via a novel manipulation of the N300 ERP component in a Picture Recognition Task of the learned items. Both non-native structure and accent slowed word learning and differences in the N300 effect indicated that semantic encoding was shallower for words with a non-native than native phonological structure, despite almost ceiling levels of accuracy. These results are consistent with a model of second language learning that proposes both accent and phonological structure influence how fast and deep new language vocabulary is learnt.

Key words Second language acquisition; vocabulary learning; N300 ERP; foreign accent; phonotactic probability; semantic encoding

The prevalence of bilingual interaction in peer-learning

Martin Schastak, DIPF, Leibniz-Institute for Research and Information in Education, Frankfurt, Germany

Jasmin Decristan, University of Wuppertal, Wuppertal, Germany

Dominique Rauch, Ludwigsburg University of Education, Ludwigsburg, Germany

Valentina Reitenbach, University of Wuppertal, Wuppertal, Germany

Abstract In an era of globalization and global migration multilingualism represents a central educational goal for international political institutions and educational systems. However, except for bilingual schooling programs, institutionalized learning usually takes place monolingually, especially in Europe. Peer-Learning seems to be a promising method for integrating bilingualism in submersion. Pupils sharing the same languages could interact bilingually while working together without the necessity of a bilingual teacher. This paper investigates the prevalence of bilingual interaction of peer-tandems in submersion. The analysis is based upon a quasi-experimental setting with n = 114 Turkish-German bilingual pupils from German elementary schools and makes use of dyadic data analysis and non-parametric methods. The results show that (1) the prevalence of bilingual interaction is nonindependent of the dyad, (2) the learning contents do not affect the prevalence of bilingual interaction, and (3) an explicit offer is needed for the activation of bilingual interaction. Practical implications for the implementation of bilingual peer-learning in submersion will be discussed.

Key words Bilingualism; translanguaging; peer-learning; Primary school; submersion; dyadic data analysis

Mandarin vocabulary growth, teacher qualifications and teacher talk in child heritage language learners

He Sun, National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

Marjolijn Verspoor, Department of English Language and Culture, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands;c University of Pannonia, Veszprem, Hungary

Abstract Teacher talk has been found to significantly affect children’s early language development during shared book reading; however, the mechanism of such influence remains unclear. The current study has zoomed in on vocabulary development in Mandarin as a heritage language (HL) in Singapore kindergartens, 1) exploring the linguistic features (i.e. lexical diversity and syntactic complexity) of these teachers; and 2) investigating the mediation effects of the significant linguistic feature(s) in teachers’ qualifications (i.e. degree, experience, and language proficiency) and children’s Mandarin vocabulary growth. 31 Mandarin teachers and 441 English-Mandarin bilingual children (4–5 years old) were investigated during their shared book reading sessions. Teacher talkwas transcribed with CHAT and two indicators of language complexity (D and Mean Length of Utterance in word) were calculated with CLAN. The mediation effects of teachers’ language complexity were explored using a path model. Results showed that after controlling for the children’s initial vocabulary, maternal education, nonverbal intelligence, and gender, teachers who used more complex syntax were found to be associated with children’s higher growth in Mandarin receptive vocabulary over a school year. Teachers’ qualifications (i.e. experience and Mandarin proficiency) had no direct influence on children’s language growth, but demonstrate their impact via teachers’ syntactic complexity.

Key words Heritage language; Mandarin input quality; shared book reading; bilingual children; teachers’qualifications; mean length of utterance

Second language reading and writing in relation to first language, vocabulary knowledge, and learning backgrounds

Minkyung Kima Nagoy, University of Commerce and Business, Nisshin, Japan

Scott A. Crossley, Department of Applied Linguistics and ESL, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA

Byeong-Kweon Kim, Department of Korean Language Education, Pusan National University, Busan, Repuplic of Korea

Abstract Being able to read and write in English as a second language (L2) in the globalized world has been increasingly considered important to gain greater personal, academic, and business achievement. This study investigates English (L2) reading and writing abilities in relation to first language (L1) reading and writing abilities, L2 vocabulary knowledge, and L2 educational backgrounds. The L1-L2 reading and writing relationships were examined in terms of the linguistic threshold and linguistic interdependence hypotheses. Data from 108 undergraduate students who learned English in South Korea were analyzed using a path analysis. Results indicated that L2 vocabulary knowledge was the most important predictor of both L2 reading and writing. L1 reading scores predicted L2 reading scores, which supports the linguistic interdependence hypothesis. A positive relationship between L1 and L2 writing was found for L2 learners with greater L2 vocabulary knowledge, supporting the linguistic threshold hypothesis. L2 educational backgrounds were also found important, such that time living in an L2-speaking country was related to better understanding L2 reading passages, while test familiarity was associated with better L2 writing performance. The findings provide a more comprehensive understanding of L2 reading and writing abilities in relation to their relevant skills and educational backgrounds.

Key words Second language reading; second language writing; vocabulary knowledge; educational backgrounds; threshold hypothesis; interdependence hypothesis

CLIL: graphic organisers and concept maps for noun identification within bilingual primary education natural science subject textbooks

José Luis Gómez Ramos, Department of Pedagogy, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spain

José Luis Palazón Fernández, Salus Infirmorum, Universidad de Cádiz, Cadiz, Spain

Juan Lirio Castro, Department of Pedagogy, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spain

Isabel Mª Gómez-Barreto, Department of Pedagogy, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spain

Abstract Though concept maps and graphic organisers are useful tools for bilinguals to organise the information being managed and learned, its systematic use is not widened and decisive in CLIL domains. Apart from helping students to acquire meaningful learning, concept mapping might promote in them word-recognition skills for the identification and management of relevant information within foreign language (L2) texts. Hence, this article inquires into the influence of concept maps and graphic organisers as tools for noun category identification from L2 texts. Research sample comprises sixty Spanish primary education students from a bilingual school. Design is quasi-experimental, and the training programme lasted three weeks. Materials used during the training period are not exceptional, but the ordinarily found in regular classrooms. Data gathering procedure consists of the identification and circling of nouns by sample participants. As a starting point, secondary data as the intelligent quotient, learning style, and English level is collected via standardised tests. The analysis of the variance showed a highly significant interaction between the groups and the implemented texts both for noun identification (F3.171 = 12.124, p < 0.000, η2 = 0.175), and the grammatical categories mistakenly identified as nouns (F3.171 = 3.840, p < 0.016, η2 = 0.063).

Key words English-Spanish bilingualism; Spanish primary education; concept mapping; graphic organisers; CLIL; EFL

Development of the CECER-DLL child and family questionnaire: a new tool for documenting the language and literacy experiences of Latino/a dual language learners

Carol Scheffner Hammer, Biobehavioral Sciences, Teachers College of Columbia University, New York, NY, USA

Lauren M. Cycyk, Communication Sciences and Disorders, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA

Shelley E. Scarpino, Audiology and Speech Pathology, Bloomsburg University, Bloomsburg, PA, USA

Karen A. Jury, Communication Sciences and Disorders, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA

Brook E. Sawyer, Education and Human Services, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA, USA

Abstract As the number of dual language learners (DLLs) increases globally, it is critical that well-developed questionnaires are available to researchers and educators that capture the characteristics and language experiences of preschool DLLs and their families. To fill this need, the Center for Early Care and Education Research-Dual Language Learners (CECER-DLL) Child and Family Questionnaire was developed. This article describes the four-step iterative process that was used to create the questionnaire, with a particular focus on the cognitive interviews that were conducted to establish the validity of the items. Findings from the cognitive interviewing process are presented which demonstrate the importance of this step when creating questionnaires that are valid for diverse populations. The development process of the CECER-DLL Child and Family Questionnaire, which is now available to the field, serves as an example of how to create well-designed questionnaires for other populations of DLLs in the United States and beyond.

Key words bilingual; dual language learners; questionnaire; cognitive interviewing; language development; language exposure

Business English students’ multifaceted and contradictory perceptions of intercultural communication education (ICE) at a Chinese University

Ashley Simpson, Shanghai University of Finance and Economics/University of Helsinki, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China

Fred Dervin, Shanghai University of Finance and Economics/University of Helsinki, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China

Jian Tao, Shanghai University of Finance and Economics, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China

Abstract Intercultural communication education (ICE) is occurring in different departments and faculties of higher education globally. Yet, there is a lack of research on how this complex field is perceived by both teachers and students. The same goes for the perceptions of the ideal teacher of the subject. This article proposes to fill these gaps by problematizing current discussions about ICE. First, the article presents an overview of the field and shows how polysemic, ideologically and politically oriented ICE is. Based on focus groups with Chinese students of Business English at a Chinese university, this case study examines how they discuss, construct and perceive, on the one hand, the idea of intercultural communication as a subject, and on the other, those who teach it. ICE is multifaceted in Chinese higher education and we do not claim to generalize for the field as a whole in this paper. Based on a dialogical approach to students’ discourses, the results show that they do not seem to have a uniform and coherent way of representing intercultural communication. As far as teachers of the subject are concerned, native/non-native and Chinese/non-Chinese dichotomies seem to dominate. Implications are discussed for the future of ICE in higher education.

Key words Business English; China; intercultural communication education; dialogism

Historical reasoning in an undergraduate CLIL course: students’ progression and the role of language proficiency

Kristin A. Sendur, Research Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands;b Center for Individual and Academic Development, Sabanci University, Orhanli-TuzlaIstanbul, Turkey

Jannet van Drie, Research Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands

Carla van Boxtel, Research Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands

Kees-Jan Kan, Research Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands

Abstract As multilingual language teachers ourselves, we believe that this book brings an end to the ongoing debate regarding native speakers versus non-native speakers in language teaching research with a single, well-aimed blow. Nevertheless, situated in a complex, ecological context, the idea of being multilingual instructors as recommended by Kramsch and Zhang remains a highly challenging goal for many language teachers to pursue. We start this review by outlining what the book achieves, before we comment on some outstanding issues that still deserve more attention.

Key words Writing; disciplinary literacy; higher education; L2; CLIL

Translanguaging or unequal languaging? Unfolding the plurilingual discourse of English medium instruction policy in Nepal’s public schools

Pramod K. Sah, Department of Language and Literacy Education, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada

Guofang Li, Department of Language and Literacy Education, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada

Abstract While other languages can be used in English-medium instruction (EMI) classrooms, little research has been conducted on the alignment of the use of these languages with the objectives of EMI policy and how bi/multilingual practices such as translanguaging respond to the sociopolitics of EMI classrooms. This case study examined both teachers’ and students’ language use in EMI classrooms in a multilingual public school in Nepal with minority students whose mother tongues were not Nepali. A critical discourse analysis of two content-area-subject classrooms showed that only Nepali and English translanguaging among students and teachers was identified and mother tongues were consistently excluded. While translanguaging in the two dominant languages could potentially create a flexible space for teaching/learning content knowledge, further interviews with teachers and administrators and a focus-group discussion with students revealed that stakeholders’ socially constructed linguistic hierarchy had led to the exclusion of the legitimate place of students’ mother tongues in their seemingly ‘ordinary’ translingual practices. The study also notes content-area teachers' pedagogic under-preparedness to use translanguaging effectively and justly in EMI classrooms, suggesting the need to reconsider the uncritical recommendation of translanguaging without reflecting on local realities and systemic barriers.

Key words Translanguaging; English medium instruction; multilingualism; classroom discourse; inequalities; Nepal

The similarity of phonological skills underpinning reading ability in shallow and deep orthographies: a bilingual perspective

Victor Martinelli, Department of Education Studies, Faculty of Education, University of Malta, Msida, Malta

Bernardette Brincat, Department of Education Studies, Faculty of Education, University of Malta, Msida, Malta

Abstract Reading comprehension relies on the integration of phonological, semantic, syntactic and pragmatic language abilities and early reading success is attributed to several interrelated factors. The current study investigated one of these skills, phonological awareness and its relation to six-year-old children’s mastery in reading Maltese and English. The researchers recruited eighty-two bilingual participants attending bilingual schools in Malta and administered two parallel batteries comprising a word reading test and phonological tests/tasks in the two respective languages. Descriptive statistics indicated suitability for further analysis. The Bartlett’s test of sphericity and the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy showed that the data were suitable for multivariate exploration. Principal components analysis identified clear componential structures in both language batteries. A statistical regression analysis identified similar phonological underpinnings across the two single word reading measures. The results showed that specific measures of phonological awareness constituted common phonological underpinnings of reading performance in both Maltese and English, although to different degrees. The results support the notion of similarity in the patterns of association of skills sustaining reading across Maltese and English in bilingual children. The view that the phonological skills driving reading development across alphabetic languages may not differ substantially between different orthographies is supported.

Key words Phonological awareness; bilingual learners; English; Maltese; universality

At the intersection of culture, bilingualism, and mathematics: breaking language norms in a seventh-grade dual-language classroom for biliteracy development

A. Garza Ayala, The University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA

Abstract As it is a common practice in Dual Language Education (DLE) classrooms throughout the United States, language separation tends to be a planning policy that is usually enforced by curriculum designers, school administrators, and bilingual teachers. However, research has shown that DLE teachers and students have the potential of teaching and learning bilingually in their own terms. Using theoretical perspectives from Anthropolitical Linguistics coupled with Ruíz’s seminal work on language as problem, resource, and right; and other socio-cultural frameworks, this paper presents an ethnographic case of a seventh-grade DLE mathematics classroom, and examines how the members of this mathematics community use their bilingual abilities in a flexible way; which in turn, influence the development of mathematics biliteracies. Drawing from a larger ethnographic project, this study shows how the members of a bilingual mathematics community of practice break language norms, which prevail in DLE classrooms, to promote mathematics biliteracies. Findings suggest that using a ‘translanguaging’ approach in DLE classrooms is an effective way for teaching and learning mathematics with a biliteracy approach. Some implications for schools, teachers, and teacher educators are discussed.

Key words Dual language education; bilingualism; mathematics education; translanguaging

Grassroots resistance and activism to one-size-fits-all and separate-but-equal policies by 90:10 dual language schools en comunidades latinas

Juan A. Freire, Teacher Education, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, USA

M. Garrett Delavan, Middle and Secondary Education, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA

Verónica E. Valdez, Education, Culture, and Society, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA

Abstract Bilingual education—chiefly the subcategory of dual language bilingual education—has been undergoing a pattern where the interests of language-minoritized communities have in several contexts been pushed out of the way. One aspect of this gentrification process has been the fiftyfication of dual language bilingual education policy, where privilege is placed on a 50:50 balance of language allocation between English and the partner language. Using thematic narrative analysis, we looked at the only two dual language bilingual education schools in the U.S. state of Utah with a 90:10 language allocation. Findings show that (a) the two charter schools were pressured in multiple ways to conform to the state’s fiftyfication policy, and (b) the schools and their Latina/o communities resisted the policy and associated pressures on behalf of their students through forms of grassroots language activism and bottom-up resistance. Although these actions ultimately resulted in the official revision of the state’s DLBE policy to be inclusive of multiple language allocation models, the schools had to continue their activism to benefit from the policy change as the state then moved to a separate-but-equal policy approach that continued the privileging of the 50:50 model. Implications for scholars and policymakers are discussed.

Key words Dual language education; equity versus equality; language policy and planning

Ciencias bilingües: how dual language teachers cultivate equity in dual language classrooms

Melissa A. Navarro Martell, Department of Dual Language and English Learner Education, College of Education, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA

Abstract The purpose of this study is to document how K-8 critically conscious, dual language, science teachers (CCDLSTs) working with bilingual learners (BLs) practice their critical consciousness via the four tenets of dual language education: ideological clarity, pedagogical perspective and clarity, access for all, and equitable spaces (IPAE). This paper is informed by the fourth tenet and research question: How do CCDLSTs create equitable spaces in science learning environments? Previous research offers limited information on how dual language, science teachers practice their critical consciousness. Given the era of Common Core State Standards and the number of BLs left with underprepared teachers, this study advances an understanding of what CCDLSTs are doing in classrooms to draw upon the assets of BLs while implementing the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS). A phenomenological qualitative design was used to gather interview and observational data of how six CCDLSTs working in Southern California public schools employed a critically conscious pedagogy in a Spanish/English dual language setting while creating access to science content with equity at the core. Findings include research-based examples of the instructional processes CCDLSTs used in their classrooms to create equity while teaching science in dual language classrooms.

Key words Equity; critical consciousness; dual language; bilingual teachers; science education; critical pedagogy

Lessons learned from exploring the potential of California's mini-corps tutors as future bilingual teachers

Margarita Jimenez-Silva, School of Education, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, USA

Nadeen Ruiz, School of Education, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, USA

Samantha Smith, The Goldman School of Public Policy, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA

Abstract Currently, there are 1.3 million English Learners (EL) in California public schools (CDE 2018). The passage of Proposition 58, which presented multilingual education as key to students’ future economic success without every using the word bilingual, lifted the previous restrictions on bilingual education programs and increased the demand for programs and bilingual teachers. Recent studies have examined knowledge related to increasing the number of bilingual teachers (e.g. Martínez-Alvarez, P., I. Cuevas, and M. Torrez-Guzmán. 2017. “Preparing Bilingual Teachers: Mediating Belonging with Multimodal Explorations in Language, Identity, and Culture.” Journal of Teacher Education 68 (2): 155–178). A state-wide study of California school districts in 2017 showed that 58% intend to begin or expand bilingual education programs (Harris, V., and A. Sandoval-González. 2017. “Unveiling California’s Growing Bilingual Teacher Shortage: Addressing the Urgent Shortage, and Aligning the Workforce to Advances in Pedagogy and Practice in Bilingual Education.” Californians Together. 4–8). The research questions guiding this work were (1) Does the California Mini-Corps (CMC) program serve as a potential pool for today’s bilingual programs?, (2) If so, what cultural community wealth do tutors bring to teaching?, and (3) What support do tutors identify as critical in a teacher education credential program? In this quantitative study (n = 179), we examine how CMC tutors can address the critical teacher – shortage and identify the assets that graduates of the program bring to teacher education programs. We also explore the needed supports identified by the tutors as critical to their success in teacher credential programs.

Key words Bilingual teachers; preservice teachers; heritage Spanish speakers; teacher shortage; teacher recruitment community cultural wealth

Developing subject knowledge co-construction and specific language use in a technology-enhanced CLIL programme: effectiveness and productive patterns

Ke Zhao,  School of Foreign Studies, Shanghai University of Finance and Economics, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China

Jiming Zhou, School of Foreign Languages and Literature, Fudan University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China

Bin Zou, Department of Applied Linguistics, Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, Suzhou, People’s Republic of China

Abstract This study investigated Chinese bilingual learners’ subject knowledge co-construction and business English language use in a Technology-enhanced Content and Language Integrated Learning (TECLIL) programe. Four intact classes of Year One University business-major students were exposed to two different learning environments – a TECLIL project-based learning environment using Knowledge Forum (KF), and a CLIL project-based learning environment. Data included student oral business presentations, written business reports, subject knowledge test results, student KF server log information, and online interaction records. The results indicated that the TECLIL project-based learning classes outperformed the comparison classes on both subject concept learning and business English language use. The quantitative analysis found that students’ KF participation was associated with their content understanding and language development. Micro-level discourse analysis of students’ online discussion notes further revealed bilingual students’ productive discourse patterns in the TECLIL environment. Theoretical and pedagogical implications are discussed.

Key words Technology-enhanced CLIL; subject knowledge co-construction; language use; bilingual learners; productive patterns

Towards a multilingual approach in assessing writing: holistic, analytic and cross-linguistic perspectives

María Orcasitas-Vicandi, Department of English, German and Translation & Interpretation, University of the Basque Country Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain

Abstract In this article, we compare holistic, analytic and cross-linguistic measures of assessment in writing considering the whole linguistic repertoire of multilingual writers. We explore different ways to look at their three languages by focusing on the relationships between these languages rather than looking at each language in isolation. We analyse 399 compositions – 133 written in each language (Basque, Spanish and English) – using quantitative and qualitative methods. Using analytic accuracy measures we compare the error-types in the three languages and analyse their relationships. Using holistic measures, we focus on the relationships between five dimensions of writing (content, organization, vocabulary, language use and mechanics). Using cross-linguistic measures, we analyse the influence of participants’ first and second language on the compositions written in English (L3). The results of the correlation analyses show different patterns of relationships among the measures and indicate that languages within a person’s repertoire are interconnected at different levels. Additionally, the results from the cross-linguistic analysis show that multilingual writers use their entire linguistic repertoire to write in their third language. We argue that analysing the entire linguistic repertoire of multilingual writers we gain new understanding about the way languages are connected and learned when writing.

Key words Multilingualism; multilingual acquisition; assessment; writing; linguistic repertoire

Measuring the multilingual reality: lessons from classrooms in Delhi and Hyderabad

Amy Lightfoot, British Council, Colombo, Sri Lanka

Anusha Balasubramanian, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

Ianthi Tsimpli, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

Lina Mukhopadhyay, English and Foreign Languages University Hyderabad, Hyderabad, India

Jeanine Treffers-Daller, University of Reading, Reading, UK

Abstract India’s linguistic diversity is reflected in classrooms across the country, where multiple languages are used by teachers and learners to negotiate meaning and instruction – a multilingual, multicultural student body is the norm, whether in urban or rural contexts. This study documents teaching practices in English language and maths lessons in Delhi and Hyderabad, with a specific focus on language use. The findings from 104 classroom observations allow us to profile multilingual practices used in schools with different official mediums of instruction. Results reveal a predominant use of ‘language mixing’ in the classroom, in both English- and regional language-medium of instruction contexts – especially in English subject lessons. Maths lessons in regional-medium schools did not involve as much language mixing by the teachers but this was still a strong feature for learners. The data also shows differences between language use particularly when comparing English-medium schools in each city. Specifically, lessons in Delhi were characterised by absolutely no occurrences of English used on its own by the teachers (as recorded during five-minute intervals), compared to significantly greater use of English alone in Hyderabad English-medium and Telugu-medium schools. Delhi teachers appear to use a greater amount of language mixing during each lesson.

Key words Multilingual education; classroom; teachers; India; translanguaging; code-switching

Is bilingualism associated with better working memory capacity? A meta-analysis

Catherine Monnier, Département de Psychologie, Univ Paul Valéry Montpellier 3, Univ Montpellier, EPSYLON EA 4556, Montpellier, France

Julie Boiché, Département de Psychologie, Univ Paul Valéry Montpellier 3, Univ Montpellier, EPSYLON EA 4556, Montpellier, France

Pauline Armandon,Département de Psychologie, Univ Paul Valéry Montpellier 3, Univ Montpellier, EPSYLON EA 4556, Montpellier, France

Sophie Baudoin, Département de Psychologie, Univ Paul Valéry Montpellier 3, Univ Montpellier, EPSYLON EA 4556, Montpellier, France

Stéphanie Bellocchi, Département de Psychologie, Univ Paul Valéry Montpellier 3, Univ Montpellier, EPSYLON EA 4556, Montpellier, France

Abstract Due to their experience of managing two languages, it has been suggested that bilinguals could receive more practice in the domain of working memory (WM) leading to a WM bilingual advantage. Although some studies have shown that bilinguals can outperform monolinguals in WM tasks, the studies investigating WM capacity in bilinguals provide inconsistent findings regarding the existence of a bilingual advantage. We therefore conducted a meta-analysis on the association between bilingualism and WM capacity. Data from 116 studies (involving 177 pairs of participants and 444 effect sizes) were extracted. Based on previous findings, we examined age, characteristics of the WM tasks –i.e. complexity (simple span vs transformation vs complex span tasks) and domain (verbal vs nonverbal) – age of first exposure to L2, and L2 proficiency as potential moderating variables. Results indicated a small bilingual advantage in WM (g = .12, p = .054), which was moderated by the language used in the verbal WM task. The bilingual advantage was stronger when the verbal WM task was performed in L2 compared to L1. Thus, the bilingual experience is associated with slightly higher WM capacity. Nevertheless, future studies would benefit from greater consideration of individual differences within groups of bilingual individuals.

Key words Bilingualism; working memory; meta-analysis

Bilingual education and beyond: how school settings shape the Chinese Yi minority’s socio-cultural attachments

Lijuan Wang, Faculty of Education, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland

Elina Lehtomäki, Faculty of Education, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland

Abstract Bilingual education policy in Liangshan, China, has been implemented since the end of the 1970s using two bilingual school models. This study examines how mainstream and bilingual education are correlated with the Yi population’s social attachment to the larger social system, and their cultural attachment to ethnocultural maintenance. The student-reported survey data collected from ten junior high schools in Liangshan were analysed using a multinomial logistic regression model that produced three findings. Firstly, family socioeconomic status is determinant in the Yi minority’s school setting choices. Secondly, school settings are significantly associated with Yi students’ educational achievements and occupational expectations. Lastly, Yi minority’s cultural attachments to their mother tongue has become significantly reduced among those attending Chinese-only schools, yet no significant discrepancy has been noted among students attending schools with two models of bilingual education.

Key words Bilingual education; school settings; language; identity; Yi minority; China

Effects of Spanish vocabulary knowledge on the English word knowledge and listening comprehension of bilingual students

Doris Luft Baker, Department of Special Education, Sanchez School of Education, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA

Betsy D. McCoach, Department of Educational Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA

Sharon Ware, Department of Special Education, University of St. Joseph, West Hartford, CT, USA

Michael D. Coyne, Department of Educational Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA

Abstract The purpose of the current study was to examine the influence of L1 (i.e. Spanish) receptive vocabulary on both expressive and receptive knowledge of target vocabulary words taught through L2 (i.e. English) instruction and intervention. Participants were Bilingual US kindergarten students determined to be at-risk based on English receptive vocabulary. To determine student vocabulary level in Spanish, we administered a receptive Spanish vocabulary assessment. Students were grouped into matched clusters within classrooms. Clusters were randomly assigned to receive whole group vocabulary instruction only in L2 (i.e. the control group, n = 172) or whole group plus small group vocabulary instruction in L2 (i.e. the treatment group, n = 179). Findings indicated that bilingual students with high receptive vocabulary knowledge in Spanish significantly outperformed bilingual students with low receptive vocabulary knowledge in Spanish. Effects of Spanish vocabulary knowledge were maintained one year later, at the end of first grade, as measured by a researcher developed expressive vocabulary measure in English. We did not find an interaction effect between condition and student level of Spanish receptive vocabulary. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Key words Bilingual students; language acquisition; mother tongue; second language acquisition; language learning; language maintenance; vocabulary; Spanish; English; listening comprehension

目录（第7-8期）

ARTICLES

■Creating language spaces with bilingual youth to expand conversations about students’ communities and civic experiences, by Pablito Ramirez, Ashley Taylor Jaffee, Pages 2347-2362.

■ Linguistic consequences of toing and froing: factors that modulate narrative development in bilingual returnee children, by Maki Kubota, Vicky Chondrogianni,Adam Scott Clark,Jason Rothman, Pages 2363-2381.

■ Word or morpheme? Investigating the representation units of L1 and L2 Chinese compound words in mental lexicon using a repetition priming paradigm, by Fei Gao, Jianqin Wang, Cecilia Guanfang Zhao, Zhen Yuan, Pages 2382-2396.

■ A reconceptualisation of native speakerism: ethnic return migrants and LOTE learning in South Korea, by Mun Woo Lee, Pages 2397-2411.

■ Literacy within a language affects bilinguals’ spoken language processing: evidence from grammaticality judgments, by Elena Nicoladis, Pui Ting Chan, Pages 2412-2421.

■ The missing C: addressing criticality in CLIL, by Mitsuyo Sakamoto, Pages 2422-2434.

■ English Medium university STEM teachers’ and students’ ideologies in constructing content knowledge through translanguaging, by Mohammad Mosiur Rahman, Manjet Kaur Mehar Singh, Pages 2435-2453.

■ Acculturation, perceived discrimination, academic identity, gender and Chinese language learning among Ethnic Minority Adolescents: a structural equation modeling analysis, by Michelle Mingyue Gu, Ming Ming Chiu, Zhen Li, Pages 2454-2468.

■Language ideologies, heritage language use, and identity construction among 1.5-generation Korean immigrants in New Zealand , by Mi Yung Park, Pages 2469-2481.

■ Monolingual ideologies of Andalusian teachers in the multilingual schools’ context, by Rosa M. Rodríguez-Izquierdo, Pages 2482-2494.

■ Contributions of code-based and oral language skills to Arabic and English reading comprehension in Arabic-English bilinguals in the elementary school years, by Redab Al-Janaideh, Kathleen Hipfner-Boucher, Patricia Cleave, Xi Chen, Pages 2495-2510.

■ Macro- and micro-developmental changes in analytical writing of bilinguals from elementary to higher education, by Liliana Tolchinsky,Melina Aparici, Hugo Vilar, Pages 2511-2526.

■ ‘There’s not much demand for it’: evaluating the concept of demand in Welsh-medium and bilingual provision in further education, by Laura Beth Davies, Pages 2527-2542.

■ Language dominance and multilingual word learning, by Beatriz de Diego-Lázaro, Pages 2543-2560.

■ Establishing multiple languages in early childhood. Heritage languages and language hierarchies in German-English daycare centers in Switzerland, by Anna Becker, Alex Knoll, Pages 2561-2572.

■ The impact of language brokering frequency and psychological health on academic motivation and learning strategies of university students in the United States, by Vanessa R. Rainey, Katerina Zatopkova, James Arruda, Ashli Barnes, Pages 2573-2585.

■ Parental beliefs, language practices and language outcomes in Spanish-English bilingual children, by Juliana Ronderos, Anny Castilla-Earls, G. Marissa Ramos, Pages 2586-2607.

■ ‘Siento que el inglés esta tumbando mi español’: A transfronteriza child’s embodied critical language awareness, by Idalia Nuñez, Pages 2608-2620.

■ Home literacy practices that support language and literacy development in bilingual children: a longitudinal case study, by Dacian Dorin Dolean, Pages 2621-2635.

■ Mid-aged Latin@s in the U.S. Midwest narrating sustained bilingualism through figured worlds of bilingualism research, professionalization, and advocacy, by Ryan A. Goble, Catherine Stafford, Pages 2636-2652.

■ Multilingual effects on EFL learning: a comparison of foreign language anxiety and self-confidence experienced by bilingual and multilingual tertiary students, by Elias Bensalem, Amy S. Thompson, Pages 2653-2667.

■ Cognitive gains and socioeconomic status in early second language acquisition in immersion and EFL learning settings, by Anna Trebits, Martin J. Koch, Katharina Ponto, Ann-Christin Bruhn, Marie Adler, Kristin Kersten, Pages 2668-2681.

■ Instructor practices and espoused beliefs about bilingual courses: the case of a Colombian university, by Pablo Antonio Archila, Giovanna Danies, Anne-Marie Truscott de Mejía, Silvia Restrepo, Pages 2682-2698.

■ Bimodal multilingual education: recognizing the linguistic resources of a diverse deaf world, by Elizabeth S. Parks, Jesús Calderón, Pages 2699-2710.

■Competence beyond language: translanguaging and spatial repertoire in teacher-student interaction in a music classroom in an international Chinese University, by Wanyu Amy Ou, Michelle Mingyue Gu, Pages 2741-2758.

■ Developing cognate awareness through pedagogical translanguaging, by Jasone Cenoz,Oihana Leonet,Durk Gorter, Pages 2759-2773.

■ When immigrant and regional minority languages coexist: linguistic authority and integration in multilingual linguistic acculturation, by Isabel Sáenz-Hernández, Cecilio Lapresta-Rey, Cristina Petreñas, Maria Adelina Ianos, Pages 2774-2787.

■ Bilingual teachers’ application of cooperative, collaborative, and peer-tutoring strategies in teaching cognitive content in a randomized control study, by Shifang Tang, Fuhui Tong, Rafael Lara-Alecio, Beverly J. Irby, Pages 2788-2804.

■ Pedagogical translanguaging in a trilingual context: the case of two EFL classrooms in a Xinjiang university, by Rui Zhang, Brian Hok-Shing Chan, Pages 2805-2816.

■ Emotionality ratings and electrodermal responses to university-related expressions in a native and a non-native language, by Norbert Vanek, Artem Tovalovich, Pages 2817-2833.

■ Language skills in Greek-English bilingual children attending Greek supplementary schools in England, by Athanasia Papastergiou, Eirini Sanoudaki, Pages 2834-2852.

■ Conceptual metaphors, plurilingualism and second language acquisition: a refugee education case study, by Chrysi Epsimari, Anna Mouti, Pages 2853-2865.

■ L2 and L3 motivational systems and their interactions: a study of Tibetan-Chinese-English trilingual learners, by Ming Li, Lubei Zhang, Linda Tsung, Pages 2866-2885.

■ Bilingual language use is context dependent: using the Language and Social Background Questionnaire to assess language experiences and test-rest reliability, by Aaron Mann, Angela de Bruin, Pages 2886-2901.

■ ‘I would rather say fighting ㅋㅋ’: discursive analysis of Korean-English language exchange students’ text messages, by Hakyoon Lee, Gyewon Jang, Pages 2902-2917.

■ Cross-curricular collaboration in a CLIL bilingual context: the perceptions and practices of language teachers and content subject teachers, by Phuong Anh Pham, Aylin Unaldi, Pages 2918-2932.

■ Patterns and predictors of code-switching in Singapore preschoolers: a corpus-based study, by Dandan Wu, Liman Cai, Luyao Liang,  Hui Li, Pages 2933-2948.

■ ‘Things should be explained so that the students understand them’: adolescent immigrant students’ perspectives on learning the language of schooling in Finland, by Raisa Harju-Autti, Marita Mäkinen, Kaisu Rättyä, Pages 2949-2961.

■ Is supporting the needs of emergent bilingual learners in mainstream classes a cultural or linguistic issue? How do policy, curricula, and secondary teacher education programmes in Australia and New Zealand compare, by Margaret Gleeson, Pages 2962-2975.

■ Working memory and multilingualism: balanced language proficiency predicts verbal working memory, by Gabriel Espi-Sanchis, Kate Cockcroft, Pages 2976-2990.

■ The ideological foundations of Breton and Lower Sorbian language revitalization through education and their consequences for new speakers, by Michael Hornsby, Nicole Dołowy-Rybińska, Joanna Chojnicka, Jeanne Toutous, Pages 2991-3004.

■ Evidence for the interdependence hypothesis: a longitudinal study of biliteracy development in a CLIL/bilingual setting, by Adrián Granados, Antonio Lorenzo-Espejo, Francisco Lorenzo,  Pages 3005-3021.

■ The extent and predictors of linguistically responsive teaching in Southwest China, by Qian Liu, Fatma Zehra Colak, Orhan Agirdag, Pages 3022-3036.

■ Teaching responsive to play and linguistic diversity in early childhood education: considerations on theoretical grounds, by Anne Kultti, Pages 3037-3045.

■ Language activation in dual language schools: the development of subject-verb agreement in the English and Spanish of heritage speaker children, by Michele Goldin, Pages 3046-3067.

■ Unilateral translanguaging: teachers’ language use, perceptions, and experience in a Portuguese-English two-way immersion program, by Mariana Lima Becker, Chris K. Chang-Bacon, Gabrielle Oliveira,  Pages 3068-3083.

■ Second language reading and self-efficacy in bilingual and musical instruction. A study of reading abilit, by Javier Ávila-López,Roberto Espejo-Mohedano,  Pages 3084-3097.

■ Students attending monolingual, bilingual, or trilingual schools at secondary level: does it influence their academic performance in a university bilingual Biology module? by Pablo Antonio Archila, Giovanna Danies, Anne-Marie Truscott de Mejía, Silvia Restrepo, Jorge Molina,  Pages 3098-3111.

BOOK REVIEWS

■ Researching second language acquisition in the study abroad learning environment, by Zongqiang Li, Honggang Liu, Pages 2711-2713.

■ The evolution of English language learners in Japan: crossing Japan, the West, and South East Asia, by Subhan Zein, Pages 2714-2716.

■Translanguaging in EFL contexts: a call for change , by Małgorzata Durygin, Pages 2717-2720.

■ Bilingualism , by Yanyan Wang, Hui Chang,  Pages 2720-2723.

■ The shift to equity , by Elena Izquierdo, Pages 2724-2725.

■ Radicalizing literacies and languaging: a framework toward dismantling the Mono-Mainstream Assumption, by Huan Gao, Pages 2725-2729.

■ Translanguaging and transformative teaching for emergent bilingual students: lessons from the CUNY-NYSIEB project, by Blake Turnbull, Pages 2729-2732.

■ The Palgrave handbook of minority languages and communities, by Shimeng Cai, Huiyu Zhang, Pages 2732-2734.

■ Developing and evaluating quality bilingual practices in higher education, by Kevin S. Carroll, Pages 2735-2736.

■ Ethnic minority languages in China: policy and practice (in Language policies and practices in China, Vol. 5, edited by Li Wei), by Shanhua He, Pages 2737-2740.

■ Theorizing and analyzing language teacher agency. Multilingual Matters, by Gang Zhu,Keyuan Shi, Pages 3112-3114.

■ Qualitative Research Topics in Language Teacher Education, by Wei Tao, Hui Huang, Pages 3115-3117.

■ Superdiversity and teacher education: supporting teachers in working with culturally, linguistically, and racially diverse students, families, and communities, by Jinjin Lu,Mingxia He, Pages 3117-3120.

■ Bilingual development in childhood (elements in child development), by Zhijun Zheng, Pages 3120-3123.

■ Research on teaching and learning English in under-resourced contexts, by Xin Li, Pages 3123-3126.

■ Silencing Shanghai: language and identity in urban China, by Junyi Gu, Qi Shen, Pages 3126-3129.

■ The Manifold Nature of Bilingual Education, by Khawla Badwan, Pages 3129-3131.

■ Curriculum integrated language teaching: CLIL in practice, by Qian Wu, Jun Lei, Pages 3131-3133.

■ Crosslinguistic influence and second language learning, by Zhihong Wang, Pages 3134-3136.

摘要

Creating language spaces with bilingual youth to expand conversations about students’ communities and civic experiences

Pablito Ramirez, CSU Dominguez Hills, Carson, CA, USA

Ashley Taylor Jaffee, Middle, Secondary, and Mathematics Education Department, James Madison University, Harrisonburg, VA, USA

Abstract This qualitative study investigated the ways in which one secondary social studies teacher engaged bilingual youth through translanguaging and citizenship education. We employed a translanguaging framework (García 2014) to document the ways in which a ninth grade bilingual teacher created language spaces with students. This study demonstrates the creative manner in which one social studies teacher used students’ full linguistic repertoire to shape classroom instruction and advance conversations about community empowerment, civic life, social studies, and Latinx leadership. 

Key words Bilingual education;second language acquisition,multilingualism,minority education,language ideologies

Linguistic consequences of toing and froing: factors that modulate narrative development in bilingual returnee children

Maki Kubota, Department of Language and Culture, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway

Vicky Chondrogianni,Department of Language and Culture, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway

Adam Scott Clark,Independent Scholar, Toronto, Canada

Jason Rothman, Department of Language and Culture, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway;d Department of Language and Education, Universidad Nebrija, Tromsø, Norway

AbstractThis longitudinal study examined the development of narrative micro- and macrostructure in Japanese-English bilingual returnee children. Returnees are children of immigrant families who move to a foreign country, spending a significant portion of their formative developmental years in the foreign majority language context before returning to their native language environment. The returnees did a narrative task in both their L1 (Japanese) and L2 (English) immediately upon their return to their native language environment and a year after. The results showed no aggregate significant changes in L1 or L2 micro- and macrostructure over time. However, at the individual level, the degree of maintenance of L2 microstructure was modulated by L2 exposure. That is, children who continued to receive L2 exposure better maintained their English microstructure (i.e. Type-Token Ratio and Verbs per Utterance) despite being re-immersed in the L1 environment. In terms of their Japanese, the age of return to the L1 environment and relative proficiency predicted the development of their Japanese microstructure (i.e. MLU, Fluency, Type-Token Ratio) and macrostructure. Our study is the first to track both languages of bilingual returnee children over time, revealing that different background variables affect the change in returnee children’s L1 and L2 narrative abilities. 

Key words Returnee children, narrative, microstructure, macrostructure, longitudinal

Word or morpheme? Investigating the representation units of L1 and L2 Chinese compound words in mental lexicon using a repetition priming paradigm

Fei Gao, Faculty of Arts and Humanities, University of Macau, Macao, People's Republic of China;c Centre for Cognitive and Brain Sciences, University of Macau, Macao, People's Republic of China

Jianqin Wang,Center for the Cognitive Science of Language, Beijing Language and Culture University, Beijing, People's Republic of China

Cecilia Guanfang Zhao, Faculty of Arts and Humanities, University of Macau, Macao, People's Republic of China

Zhen Yuan, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Macao, People's Republic of China;c Centre for Cognitive and Brain Sciences, University of Macau, Macao, People's Republic of China

AbstractThe present study used a repetition priming paradigm to investigate the basic morphological units stored in mental lexicon for Chinese as second language learners (L2) and Chinese native speakers (L1). Meanwhile, the modulation of Chinese morpheme property (bound or free) in lexical processing was examined. The results revealed that for intermediate-level L2 learners, Chinese words could be accessed through either whole-words or morphemes, while advanced-level learners and Chinese natives might employ a whole-word pathway. This might suggest that as language proficiency and reading experience develops, learners tend to rely more on whole-words as a processing strategy. Regarding the morpheme property effect, bound morphemes reported a greater priming effect than free morphemes in lexical decision tasks for both L1 and L2 speakers, which was interpreted with an interactive-activation framework. 

Key words Representational units,L2 Chinese,morpheme property,repetition priming

A reconceptualisation of native speakerism: ethnic return migrants and LOTE learning in South Korea

Mun Woo Lee, Department of English Education, Hanyang University, Seoul, South Korea

AbstractThis study examines how Korean learners of Chinese perceive Chinese native speakerism, especially in relation to Choseonjok, or Korean-Chinese people. In-depth individual interviews were conducted with 47 Korean learners of Chinese who attended private Chinese language institutes or in-company Chinese programmes. The transcribed interviews were examined using grounded theory. The findings demonstrate that Chinese native speakerism in South Korea is highly contextualised and intertwined with notions of model pronunciation, ethnicity, nationality and identity. Most participants believed that the Chinese pronunciation of Choseonjok would be less standard than that of native Chinese speakers living in Beijing. Although the participants considered Choseonjok Chinese speakers to be less competent than native Chinese, they categorised Choseonjok as Chinese, pointing out that being able to speak Korean is not enough to become Korean, and that Choseonjok lack emotional loyalty towards Korea. The participants also considered Choseonjok to be unsuited to work as Chinese language teachers and more suited to certain jobs that Korean nationals avoid. This study critically demonstrates how native speakerism can be instantiated in accordance with sociocultural constructs and how this can contribute to a reconceptualisation of native speakerism, especially in a non-English case. 

Key words Native speakerism, Choseonjok, Chinese language, ethnic return migrants, bilingualism

Literacy within a language affects bilinguals’ spoken language processing: evidence from grammaticality judgments

Elena Nicoladis,Pui Ting Chan,  Department of Psychology, University of Alberta, Edmonton Canada

Abstract Bilinguals can be proficient in oral language without necessarily knowing how to read and write in at least one of their languages. Literacy has been shown to affect language processing in monolinguals. In the present study, we test if literacy affects grammaticality judgments for Cantonese–English bilinguals who varied in Chinese literacy abilities. There are grammatical differences between oral Cantonese and written Chinese (e.g. modal verb placement). We compared response times for Chinese sentences that were either congruent or incongruent in spoken and written grammaticality. We found that for some incongruent sentences, proficient readers had significantly slower response times than congruent sentences. Unproficient readers were not affected by the grammaticality of the written form. These results show that literacy within a language can impact spoken language processing.

Key words literacy, grammaticality judgments, Cantonese

The missing C: addressing criticality in CLIL

Mitsuyo Sakamoto, Department of English Studies, Sophia University, Tokyo, Japan

AbstractContent and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) is a popular teaching approach that is being enthusiastically adopted across Japan (Ikeda, M. 2019. “CLIL in Comparison with PPP: A Revolution in ELT by Competency-Based Language Education.” In Innovation in Language Teaching and Learning: The Case of Japan, edited by H. Reinders, R. Hayo, and S. Nakamura, 23–45. Palgrave Learning). CLIL is built on a 4Cs framework: Content, communication, cognition and culture (Coyle, D. 2007. “Content and Language Integrated Learning: Towards a Connected Research Agenda for CLIL Pedagogies.” International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 10 (5): 543–562), addressing and nurturing all four domains. While CLIL has since extended its tenets beyond the 4Cs and now adopts a more holistic, integrated, multimodal pluriliteracies perspective (Meyer, O., D. Coyle, A. Halbach, K. Schuck, and T. Ting. 2015. “A Pluriliteracies Approach to Content and Language Integrated Learning – Mapping Learner Progression in Knowledge Construction and Meaning-Making.” Language, Culture and Curriculum28 (1): 41–57; Meyer, O., and D. Coyle. 2017. “Pluriliteracies Teaching for Learning: Conceptualizing Progression for Deeper Learning in Literacies Development.” European Journal of Applied Linguistics 5 (2): 199–222), the 4Cs ideals are still integral in understanding CLIL, and in this paper the author extends its importance and suggests the addition of the fifth C, that of criticality. Without the fifth C, CLIL remains a contentious teaching approach in Japan, given that it is framed within neoliberal goals and discourse. In the current framework, language is deemed largely as a tool that allows one to cultivate the four domains, assuring language/content learning and possibly socio-economic advancement. However, as is, incongruencies in ideologies and conceptualizations conveyed via different languages are not taken up sufficiently, and what’s more, problematized and challenged. This paper addresses this lack and calls for the fifth C to make CLIL in Japan an even more robust, holistic and meaningful language teaching approach. 

Key words Critically, CLIL, Japan, 5th C, EFL

English Medium university STEM teachers’ and students’ ideologies in constructing content knowledge through translanguaging

Mohammad Mosiur Rahman, BRAC Institute of Languages, BRAC University, Dhaka, Bangladesh;b School of Languages, Literacies and Translation, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia

Manjet Kaur Mehar Singh, School of Languages, Literacies and Translation, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia

AbstractNew norms of linguistic ideology and practices emerged as English grows in higher education in non-English speaking countries. English Medium Instruction (EMI) has been formalised by overlooking the role of other (e.g. native) languages in knowledge construction and communication. This study investigates STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) teachers’ and students’ language-related ideologies about translanguaging at a private university in Bangladesh where English has been adopted as an instructional medium. The participants of this study include 6 university teachers and 10 students from STEM background. In-depth interviews with teachers and students reveal that, while English has been used as the official language for instruction, translanguaging has been highlighted for its purposeful use and significance in STEM classrooms, primarily in the construction of knowledge, communication, and scientific meaning-making. The findings of the study also shed light on the mismatch between macro-level English-only monolingual language policy adoption driven by contemporary ideologies associated with English, and micro-level stakeholders’ ideologies of translanguaging in STEM pedagogy. This study, therefore, argues for a change in the way of looking at bilinguals’ language practices and embracing the linguistic rights and reality for more flexible and inclusive language policy in higher education.

Key words Translanguaging, translingual practices, English medium instruction, language ideology, higher education, Bangladesh

Acculturation, perceived discrimination, academic identity, gender and Chinese language learning among Ethnic Minority Adolescents: a structural equation modeling analysis

Michelle Mingyue Gu, Faculty of Humanities, Education University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People’s Republic of China

Ming Ming Chiu, Assessment Research Center, Education University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People’s Republic of China

Zhen Li, Department of Chinese Language Studies, Education University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People’s Republic of China

AbstractParents, teachers and policy makers are concerned about how immigrant students acquire the mainstream language and achieve academic success. Therefore, researchers face an urgent need to examine the broader ecological factors that influence immigrant students’ academic identity construction and mainstream language learning. This study investigates the nexus of acculturation, gender, identity and Chinese language learning among 881 South Asian immigrant adolescents in Hong Kong. The results indicate that students with stronger academic identity report superior Chinese reading and writing, and the results show that among ethnic minorities, girls reported higher level of Chinese reading and writing than boys. Paradoxically perhaps, students who perceived greater discrimination didn’t show significantly different academic identity from other students and reported higher proficiency in reading and writing Chinese. This implies the necessity of providing more school and social support to these students. The study also shows that students with greater assimilation have weaker academic identity and hence report poorer Chinese reading and writing. The negative link between assimilation and mainstream language learning suggests the importance of maintaining the heritage identity and sense of belonging to heritage culture for enhancing the ethnic minority students’ mainstream language learning. This result informs policy makers developing suitable immigration policy.

Key words Acculturation, perceived discrimination, academic identity, gender, target language learning, Ethnic Minority Adolescents

Language ideologies, heritage language use, and identity construction among 1.5-generation Korean immigrants in New Zealand

Mi Yung Park, Asian Studies, School of Cultures, Languages and Linguistics, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand

AbstractThis article explores language ideologies, heritage language (HL) use, and identity construction among 1.5-generation Korean immigrants in New Zealand. Drawing on interview data, the study shows how language ideologies and identities influence these immigrants’ language use and investment. All participants reported speaking Korean with their parents and adult members of their ethnic community, considering the use of English with these interlocutors to be inappropriate. The participants associated Korean language with their ethnocultural identities and viewed proficiency in their HL as essential in claiming Koreanness. The majority also reported ‘mixing’ Korean and English with siblings and friends, a practice they perceived as part of a shared ‘Kowi’ (Korean-Kiwi) identity. The participants’ investment in HL use and maintenance was strongly tied to gaining cultural capital as Koreans in New Zealand; at the same time, they showed a lack of investment in further HL development. Constructing their identities as diasporic subjects, they did not regard native-like Korean fluency or advanced literacy skills as necessary or contributing to their socioeconomic capital. Based on the findings, this study offers implications for school administrators and policy makers in terms of how to support immigrants’ HL development for the benefit of individuals, families, communities, and the nation.

Key words Heritage language use, language ideology, identity, investment, Korean immigrant, New Zealand

Monolingual ideologies of Andalusian teachers in the multilingual schools’ context

Rosa M. Rodríguez-Izquierdo, Department of Education and Social Psychology, Pablo de Olavide University, Sevilla, Spain

Abstract This article examines Andalusian teachers’ ideologies towards migrant students’ bilingualism and, the way teachers perceive the home language maintenance and its use in the school context. The data was collected through semi-structured interviews to two types of teachers –specialist language and regular teachers– in Andalusia (Spain). Findings revealed that were slight differences in the ideologies of these two types of teachers. In general, teachers’ beliefs towards bilingualism were relatively positive. In rhetoric, language teachers demonstrated a greater appreciation for the bilingualism of the students and viewed it as a challenge. Conversely, the regular teachers had a less positive orientation towards bilingualism, associating it with problems. Furthermore, teachers advocate assimilationist language ideologies that consider – Spanish-only– as an indispensable tool for academic achievement. Our results also highlight that participants did not seem to be aware of the importance of students’ home language-as-a right and its use as a democratic condition in a multilingual society such as Spain. The results show a need for professional development for all teachers to move away from monolingualism to advocating for multilingualism to better reflect the realities of the classrooms.

Key words Bilingualism, language ideologies, immigration, home languages, assimilationist, Andalusia

Contributions of code-based and oral language skills to Arabic and English reading comprehension in Arabic-English bilinguals in the elementary school years

Redab Al-Janaideh, Kathleen Hipfner-Boucher, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada

Patricia Cleave, School of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada

Xi Chen, Department of Applied Psychology and Human Development, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada

Abstract Situated within the Simple View of Reading, this study examined the code-related (word reading) and oral language (receptive vocabulary, narrative comprehension, narrative production) skills that contribute to English and Arabic reading comprehension in two groups of Arabic-English bilingual children (7–9 and 10–12 years) living in an English majority environment. Further, the study examined the contribution of oral narrative production to reading comprehension over and above that of word reading, receptive vocabulary and listening comprehension. Overall, our results support the applicability of the Simple View of Reading to English and Arabic reading comprehension in this minority language sample. In English, narrative production emerged as a unique predictor of English reading comprehension in both younger and older groups, suggesting that a comprehensive model of second language reading comprehension need account for the contribution of discourse-level productive skill. In Arabic, vowelized word reading explained unique variance in Arabic reading comprehension across age groups, whereas receptive vocabulary emerged as a significant contributor of reading comprehension in the older group only. We interpret our findings as a result of Arabic diglossia in conjunction with limited exposure to standard Arabic.

Key words Arabic-English bilingual children, simple view of reading, reading comprehension, oral narrative production, word reading

Macro- and micro-developmental changes in analytical writing of bilinguals from elementary to higher education

Liliana Tolchinsky, Department of Catalan Philology and General Linguistics, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain

Melina Aparici, Department of Department of Cognitive, Developmental and Educational Psychology, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain

Hugo Vilar, Department of Linguistic and Literary Education, and Teaching and Learning of Experimental Sciences and Mathematics, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain

Abstract Analytical writing serves to learn and communicate learning. Our goal was to determine the impact of students’ bilingual profile, defined by self-evaluated bilingual competence, use of language(s) for mental operations and language(s) use across different contexts, on their developing analytical writing abilities. Catalan/Spanish bilinguals – in 6th and 10th grade and university students – produced three texts on the same topic along a set of classroom activities, and a fourth one, on a different topic, one month later. We traced changes in text length and structure as indicators of proficiency across school levels and texts and tested the contribution of participants’ linguistic profile on the observed changes. A Structural Equation Modeling on indicators of proficiency as growth parameters yielded a positive effect of self-evaluated bilingual proficiency on text length of the initial productions, whereas use of language for mental operations affected the rate of length increment across texts. Participants’ self-evaluations of their linguistic proficiency did not affect text structure. The multidimensionality of bilingualism contributes differentially to proficiency in analytical writing.

Key words Analytical writing, development, bilingualism, elementary school, high school, higher education

‘There’s not much demand for it’: evaluating the concept of demand in Welsh-medium and bilingual provision in further education

Laura Beth Davies, School of Welsh, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK

Abstract This article explores the role of the concept of ‘demand’ in Welsh-medium education policy in Further Education and its effectiveness in increasing the number of learners studying through the medium of Welsh and bilingually. The research is based on a sample of four different areas across Wales, drawing on semi-structured interviews with staff in schools and Further Education colleges, and on focus groups with pupils in the final year of their statutory education, who are intending to pursue vocational subjects. The study identifies the principles underlying planning provision according to demand, and analyses the limitations of doing so. Using Bourdieu’s concepts of linguistic habitus and the linguistic market, the article examines how planning according to demand fails to take into consideration the power context of Welsh and English, and the social expectations of the networks in which learners make linguistic choices. It argues that in order to increase the number of learners following Welsh-medium and bilingual provision in the FE sector in Wales, there is a need to reject the neoliberal discourse of choice and demand.

Key words Languange choice, Language policy, minority languages, Weish, Bilingual Education, Wales

Language dominance and multilingual word learning

Beatriz de Diego-Lázaro, Department of Speech and Language Pathology, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, USA

AbstractStudies on multilingual word learning have focused on identifying a bilingual advantage over monolingual peers, paying little attention to the relationships between bilinguals’ existing vocabulary size and novel word learning. This study compared monolingual and bilingual school-age children on word learning tasks in familiar and unfamiliar languages and examined the relationships between bilingual vocabulary and multilingual word learning. The results showed no significant differences between monolingual and bilingual children in any of the word learning tasks. In addition, the results suggested that bilingual children use vocabulary in the languages they know in a specific way; whereas vocabulary in the dominant language seems to have a facilitative role for word learning in any language (language-dominant pattern), vocabulary in the non-dominant language is used only when learning new words in that particular language (language-dependent pattern). 

Key words Multilingual word learning, language dominance, sequential bilinguals, vocabulary, lexicon

Establishing multiple languages in early childhood. Heritage languages and language hierarchies in German-English daycare centers in Switzerland

Anna Becker, Alex Knoll, Department of Educational Sciences, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland

AbstractThe number of conceptually bilingual daycare centers has been steadily increasing in Switzerland, a traditionally multilingual country. Yet, the focus on the languages introduced in these institutions has largely remained on one national language – and English. We look at how English and – in our case – German are employed in daycare centers and how their prioritization leads to a reproduction and legitimization of language hierarchies. Drawing on the theoretical perspectives of translanguaging, code-switching, and language hierarchies as well as data from an ethnographic study in three daycare centers, we investigate how teachers and children employ different languages in the light of restrictions imposed by the daycare centers’ language policy. Although these are implemented differently in each institution, the overall commonality is the juxtaposition of the prestigious and official languages used, German and English, and the virtual exclusion of children’s heritage languages. 

Key words multilingualism, early childhood education and care, heritage language, language ideologies and hierarchies, language practice

The impact of language brokering frequency and psychological health on academic motivation and learning strategies of university students in the United States

Vanessa R. Rainey, Katerina Zatopkova, James Arruda, Ashli Barnes, Department of Psychology, University of West Florida, Pensacola, FL, USA

AbstractPrevious research studying language brokers (i.e. children/adolescents who translate for family members) has indicated some positive correlations between frequent language brokering and gains in cognitive development, although little of this research has been conducted on language brokers during the university/higher education years. At the same time, there is evidence documenting elevated levels of depression and anxiety in brokers who translate frequently, which may undermine positive cognitive developments. The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of accumulated brokering frequency on academic motivation and learning strategies in United States university students, while accounting for psychological health symptoms. Greater brokering experience uniquely predicted increases in academic motivation and learning strategies. In particular, these relations were driven by greater value components (i.e. intrinsic and extrinsic goal orientation, task value understanding) and cognitive and metacognitive strategy use. This suggests greater self-regulated learning abilities in the university setting for language brokers with more translation experience. The brokers’ reported psychological health symptoms did not interact with these positive correlations. Overall, these findings help to more directly understand the context of the language broker in higher academia and the impact on cognitive outcomes during this important transition into adulthood. 

Key words Language broker, bilingual, motivation, learning, translating 

Parental beliefs, language practices and language outcomes in Spanish-English bilingual children

Juliana Ronderos, Anny Castilla-Earls, G. Marissa Ramos, University of Houston

AbstractAs the U.S. population who speaks a language other than English at home continues to grow, few studies have focused on the effect of parental beliefs on the importance of bilingualism have on language outcomes of their children. In this study, we surveyed families raising Spanish-English bilingual children on their beliefs concerning both languages, language practices they implement at home, at school, and in the community, and language outcomes of their children. Using a single mediator model, this study aimed to understand the impact of parental beliefs on language outcomes in Spanish and English and the mediating effects of language practices. We then examined the individual mediating effects of language practices at home, school, and community on the relationship between parental beliefs and language outcomes for each language using a multiple mediator model. Our results suggest that parental beliefs in Spanish predict Spanish language outcomes and parental beliefs in English predict English outcomes and that practices in each language mediated this effect. In particular, we found that Spanish practices at home mediated the effect of language outcomes in Spanish and that English practices at home and in the community mediated English language outcomes. 

Key words Spanish-English bilinguals, parental beliefs, language practices, bilingualism, language outcomes

‘Siento que el inglés esta tumbando mi español’: A transfronteriza child’s embodied critical language awareness

Idalia Nuñez, The University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA

AbstractFor many minoritized communities, sustaining or at least holding on to their home language and cultural identity has been a constant uphill battle. Nevertheless, Latina/o/x who speak Spanish, for example, have demonstrated to be linguistically and culturally resilient against hegemonic societal, institutional, political, and monolithic national ideologies. This article explores a single case study of a Latina transfronteriza child’s embodied critical language awareness. Merging Critical Language Awareness and Chicana Feminist Theory, the findings demonstrate how a Latina child makes sense of linguistic hierarchies, language loss, and how she challenges deficit perspectives imposed on her home language by relying on her senses and feelings. The article concludes by offering ways to understand and support critical language awareness with Latina/o/x students that stems from knowledge rooted in the brown body and their lived experience. 

Key words Bilingualism, language maintenance, resistance, Chicana Feminist epistemology, critical language awareness

Home literacy practices that support language and literacy development in bilingual children: a longitudinal case study

Dacian Dorin Dolean, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Babes Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania

AbstractIn the past few decades, literature has consistently suggested that bilingual children are at risk for academic failure due to their limited language skills. However, many of these studies included underprivileged bilingual children, and few of them attempted to disentangle the effects of bilingualism from the effects of socio-economic status. Critically, it is not clear how the language and literacy skills of bilingual children develop when they benefit from home support. This paper presents the case study of a child who emigrated from Romania to the United States at the age of 4.8 and enrolled in preschool with no prior knowledge of English. With support from his family, by the end of the 4th grade, his English vocabulary was 2.5 standard deviations above national norms (11th grade level equivalent), and all other standardized language and reading comprehension measures placed him between the 82nd and the 99th percentile. This study suggests that the socio-economic status (in general) and the home language and literacy environment (in particular) has the potential to play an important role in the language and literacy development of bilingual children. 

Key words Language development, literacy development, bilingual, SES, home literacy practices

Mid-aged Latin@s in the U.S. Midwest narrating sustained bilingualism through figured worlds of bilingualism research, professionalization, and advocacy

Ryan A. Goble, Doctoral Program in Second Language Acquisition, University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA

Catherine Stafford, Department of Spanish and Portuguese, University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA

AbstractDrawing on research interviews conducted as part of a larger study of bilingualism, we investigated how mid-aged Latin@ migrants—a group that has received little empirical attention in applied linguistics—interpret their ongoing cultivation of their own Spanish-English bilingualism at this stage of their personal and professional lives. We viewed our participants as visitors to a figured world of bilingualism research, a reflexive framing that considers how the interplay of emic and etic perspectives shapes our understanding of sustained bilingualism. We examined narratives of study participants’ lived experiences as bilinguals in the Midwestern United States and the contradictions that emerged in their stories, particularly those concerning home language use and leveraging bilingualism in professional settings. We found that contradictions emerged when participants ‘broke away’ from the research frame and agentively pivoted to more personally meaningful interpretative frames where they could authoritatively narrate their experiences without metalanguage or overt discussion of language choices and attitudes. We argue that considering the multiple perspectives from which narratives are constructed and interpreted—including our own values and assumptions as bilingualism researchers—offers a more nuanced view of our participants’ bilingual trajectories. 

Key words Lifespan bilingualism, Spanish in the U.S, figured worlds, narrative analysis, researcher reflexivity

Multilingual effects on EFL learning: a comparison of foreign language anxiety and self-confidence experienced by bilingual and multilingual tertiary students

Elias Bensalem, Northern Border University, Arar, Saudi Arabia

Amy S. Thompson, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA

AbstractThe present project examined foreign language anxiety (FLA) and self-confidence experienced by bilingual and multilingual tertiary students in Saudi Arabia who were learning English as a Foreign Language (EFL). The study involved 354 students (163 bilinguals and 191 multilinguals) recruited from public Saudi universities. Participants answered the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS; Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope 1986, “Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety.” The Modern Language Journal 70 (2): 125–132). Results of an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) identified two dimensions underlying FLA: ‘English class performance anxiety’ and ‘confidence with English’ Analyses of the data revealed that the bilingual students experienced more FLA than their multilingual peers; however, they also experienced more self-confidence. The present study provides empirical evidence of the role played by multilingualism in the Saudi context in terms of FLA and self-confidence. 

Key words Bilingualism, English as foreign language, foreign language anxiety, multilingualism, positive psychology, self-confidence

Cognitive gains and socioeconomic status in early second language acquisition in immersion and EFL learning settings

Anna Trebits, Martin J. Koch, Katharina Ponto, Ann-Christin Bruhn, Marie Adler, Kristin Kersten, Department of English, University of Hildesheim, Hildesheim, Germany

AbstractThis study explores the relationship of early immersion education, socioeconomic background, and cognitive gains of young learners. We examine the possible advantages of early bilingual education and the impact of family socioeconomic status (SES) for the cognitive development of children. Participants (N = 39) were students at regular (German) or immersion (German-English) primary schools in Germany. The study employed a longitudinal design with school program and socioeconomic status as between-subjects factors, and L2 proficiency and cognitive variables as within-subject factors. The pre- and post-tests consisted of tests of English vocabulary and grammar and tests of working memory capacity, non-verbal intelligence, and phonological awareness. Participants also completed a parental questionnaire assessing their socioeconomic background based on HISEI indicators (Highest International Socioeconomic Index). Repeated measures ANOVAs and regression analyzes revealed that the participants from the immersion school outperformed their peers from the regular schools on all L2 (English) proficiency and cognitive variables on the posttest. Furthermore, our data revealed that SES is significantly more influential in participants who follow regular school programs than in those who are enrolled in immersion schools. Overall, our data provide support for the benefits of early immersion programs in leveling the playing field for children of low socioeconomic status. 

Key words Early immersion, early bilingual education, socioeconomic status (SES), cognitive development, working memory capacity 

Instructor practices and espoused beliefs about bilingual courses: the case of a Colombian university

Pablo Antonio Archila, Vice-Presidency of Research and Creation, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia

Giovanna Danies, Department of Design, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia

Anne-Marie Truscott de Mejía, School of Education, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia

Silvia RestrepoJean-Marc Dewaele, Vice-Presidency of Research and Creation, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia

Abstract Recent studies show that English as the medium of instruction seems impractical and ineffective in countries where English is the second or foreign language. The situation becomes even more complicated because of students’ resistance to an English-only format. In response to this, universities around the world also offer first language-English bilingual courses. Although bilingual courses are a legitimate opportunity to achieve internationalization, very little is known about bilingual teaching practices (BTPs) and the instructors’ espoused beliefs about this type of practice. In this cross-sectional study, the twenty-eight-item questionnaire created by Archila and Truscott de Mejía (2020a) was adapted to explore the practices and espoused beliefs of three hundred eleven instructors from twelve schools at a Colombian university. Findings indicate that instructors used to include some BTPs in their courses. Nonetheless, there was evidence that they needed more preparation and support for the creation, implementation, and assessment of this type of practice. Most importantly, our results support the claim that bi/multilingual higher education policies should respond to the nature of each discipline. Relevant policy implications are discussed in light of the call of some authors to move towards university first language-English bilingual courses.

Key words Bilingual teaching practice, espoused beliefs, instructor education, internationalization of higher education, university bilingual education 

Bimodal multilingual education: recognizing the linguistic resources of a diverse deaf world

Elizabeth S. Parks, Jesús Calderón, Department of Communication Studies, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA

Abstract Although research of bilingualism in a single aural–oral linguistic mode is common, this has yet to be extended to visual–gestural modes of language use. This is a significant research gap, as deaf people and signed languages are agentic forces that contribute to a diverse global linguistic and sociocultural landscape. In this article, we present a current deaf bilingualism case study in Uruguay to explore ways that education may move beyond a focus on bimodal bilingualism to acquisition of multiple signed languages alongside a spoken one: bimodal multilingualism. We contextualize the Uruguayan case within a broader history of bilingual education and introduce the possibility of an educational initiative in which bimodal multilingual educational opportunities are available through Uruguayan Sign Language (LSU), Spanish, and American Sign Language (ASL). We suggest five areas to attune to as bimodal multilingual educational initiatives are pursued, attending to language vitality and viability related to a number of speakers, intergenerational language transmission, attitudes toward languages, domains of language use, availability of quality language materials, and responses to media use. Finally, we conclude with a call to bilingual education scholars to include an emergent horizon of bimodal multilingual education marked by acquisition of multiple signed languages.

Key words Bimodal multilingualism, deaf education, sign language, Uruguay, language acquisition, technology

Competence beyond language: translanguaging and spatial repertoire in teacher-student interaction in a music classroom in an international Chinese University

Wanyu Amy Ou,  Michelle Mingyue Gu, The Department of English Language Education, The Education University of Hong Kong, Ting Kok, Hong Kong

Abstract Previous research on classroom interaction in international university contexts tended to focus on individual speakers’ language (in)competence. This paper adopts a translanguaging and spatial orientation to intercultural classroom interaction and highlights the role of situated assemblages of linguistic, semiotic and multimodal resources embedded in the environment of learning activities for successful communication. The study provides a close multimodal conversation analysis of the interaction between a Chinese instructor and an international student in a music classroom in an international university adopting English medium in China. The findings illustrate how diverse resources beyond the official language of instruction congregated at a particular time in the classroom, interacted with one another and worked collaboratively to allow the two participants, with language barriers between them, to communicate smoothly and accomplish the teaching/learning tasks efficiently. We thus call for an expanded conceptualization of communicative competence in intercultural (classroom) interaction in international higher education, which moves beyond the linguistic-centered view and incorporates the value of spatial repertoires in generating individuals’ situated ‘language ability’ for achieving communicative, teaching and learning goals. Implications for language policy and pedagogy in international universities are discussed.

Key words Language competence, spatial repertoire, translanguaging, intercultural communication, international higher education, multimodal conversation analysis

Developing cognate awareness through pedagogical translanguaging

Jasone Cenoz,Oihana Leonet, Durk Gorter, Department of Educational Sciences, University of the Basque Country, UPV/EHU, Donostia-San Sebastian, Spain

AbstractThis article is on pedagogical translanguaging, understood as planned instructional strategies used with a pedagogical purpose in a multilingual educational context. The paper reports a study on cognate identification and cognate awareness carried out in a multilingual primary school. The study aims at analyzing whether the identification of cognates in three languages is related to linguistic factors and to teaching. The relationship between teaching cognates and metalinguistic awareness is also explored. Half of the participants took part in an intervention based on pedagogical translanguaging using multilingual resources from the students’ own repertoire while the other half followed regular classes. Participants completed a background questionnaire and a cognate recognition task. Information was also gathered by means of a think-aloud protocol and an interview. The results indicate that the identification of cognates is connected to the linguistic characteristics of cognates but not to having Basque or Spanish as a first language. Participants who had taken part in the intervention showed a higher development of cognate awareness but there were no significant differences between the groups in cognate identification. The results are exploratory but they indicate that using the languages in the students’ whole linguistic repertoire can create more opportunities for language learning. 

Key words Cognates, translanguaging, awareness, multilingual education, vocabulary 

When immigrant and regional minority languages coexist: linguistic authority and integration in multilingual linguistic acculturation

Isabel Sáenz-Hernández, Cecilio Lapresta-Rey, Department of Geography and Sociology, University of Lleida, Lleida, Spain

Cristina Petreñas, Maria Adelina Ianos, Department of Pedagogy & Psychology, University of Lleida, Lleida, Spain

AbstractThis study explores integration and linguistic acculturation in Catalonia (Spain), a multilingual setting where a state and a regional language coexist with those of immigration. Using qualitative content analysis, we examined the linguistic acculturation profiles of 13 high-school students of immigrant background and the linguistic acculturation expectations of 15 autochthonous students, considering Spanish, Catalan and heritage languages. Then, we explored their understanding of what integration means and its relation to language. Public use of heritage languages was the main source of friction. Participants of immigrant origin with assimilation profiles only used heritage languages with family, while those in multilingual profiles also used them in the public domain. Autochthonous students condemned their use in public, although they supported their use at home. Students from immigrant backgrounds advocated for a more inclusive understanding of integration, particularly those in multilingual profiles, but autochthonous students equated integration to assimilation. Educational implications are discussed. 

Key words Immigration, heritage language, acculturation, linguistic acculturation, integration, Catalonia 

Bilingual teachers’ application of cooperative, collaborative, and peer-tutoring strategies in teaching cognitive content in a randomized control study

Shifang Tang, Fuhui Tong, Rafael Lara-Alecio, Department of Educational Psychology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA;d Center for Research & Development in Dual Language & Literacy Acquisition (CRDLLA), Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA

Beverly J. Irby, Department of Educational Administration and Human Resource Development, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA;c Education Leadership Research Center (ELRC), Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA;d Center for Research & Development in Dual Language & Literacy Acquisition (CRDLLA), Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA

AbstractVia a multi-domain, multi-response classroom observation instrument, we observed and analyzed treatment and control teachers’ pedagogical differences when applying cooperative, collaborative, and peer-tutoring (CCP) strategies in Grade 1 bilingual classrooms with English learners (ELs). We found that with the support of ongoing, structured, and curriculum-aligned virtual professional development (VPD), treatment teachers allocated more time in engaging ELs via CCP strategies and evaluating and providing feedback to ELs. Moreover, treatment ELs had more opportunities to be involved in CCP activities that promoted dense cognitive, academic English language development. 

Key words Classroom observation, virtual professional development, cooperative/collaborative/peer-tutoring strategies, teacher pedagogical behaviours  

Pedagogical translanguaging in a trilingual context: the case of two EFL classrooms in a Xinjiang university

Rui Zhang, Research Center for Linguistics and Applied Linguistics, Xi’an International Studies University, Xi’an, People’s Republic of China; School of English Studies, Xi’an International Studies University, Xi’an, People’s Republic of China

Brian Hok-Shing Chan, Department of English, University of Macau, Taipa, Macao

AbstractThis paper examines the translanguaging practice of two EFL teachers in a Xinjiang university, where English and Mandarin Chinese are predominant but Uyghur is minoritised as a medium of instruction. We focus on data in which the teachers translanguage across all three languages and make a case for the conception of pedagogical translanguaging which is differentiated from spontaneous translanguaging and in which named languages (or naming languages) can play an important role in the instruction (Cenoz, J., and D. Gorter. 2017. “Sustainable Translanguaging and Minority Languages: Threat or Opportunity?” Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development38 (10): 901–912. doi:10.1080/01434632.2017.1284855; Cenoz, J., and D. Gorter. 2020. “Pedagogical Translanguaging: An Introduction.” System 92: 102269. doi:10.1016/j.system.2020.102269). More specifically, named languages can be helpful in accomplishing specific goals of pedagogical translanguaging, in particular, developing metalinguistic awareness of multilingual students whose mother tongue /community language is minoritised. While translanguaging across all three languages appears a very useful teaching resource, it is restricted to the teaching of English vocabulary and grammar, areas in which students are perceived to be weakest. Moreover, the use of Uyghur only when it is felt to be most needed suggests that much more ‘breathing space’ (Cenoz, J., and D. Gorter. 2017. “Sustainable Translanguaging and Minority Languages: Threat or Opportunity?” Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 38 (10): 901–912. doi:10.1080/01434632.2017.1284855; Cenoz, J., and D. Gorter. 2020. “Pedagogical Translanguaging: An Introduction.” System 92: 102269. doi:10.1016/j.system.2020.102269) is required to sustain Uyghur and to exploit the full pedagogical potential of the ethnic language.

Key words Pedagogical translanguaging, breathing space, named languages, trilingual context, university EFL classroom, Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region

Emotionality ratings and electrodermal responses to university-related expressions in a native and a non-native language

Norbert Vanek, School of Cultures, Languages and Linguistics, Faculty of Arts, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand; Experimental Research on Central European Languages Lab, Faculty of Arts, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic

Artem Tovalovich, Department of Education, University of York, York, UK

AbstractTo what extent does emotional reactivity differ when bilinguals process input in their native (L1) or non-native language (L2)? Does the L1 elicit a significantly stronger emotional arousal or can salient second language experience generate comparably strong associations between emotions and the L2? These questions were addressed through two measures of emotional arousal, (online) skin conductance responses (SCR) and (offline) emotionality ratings. Russian-English late bilinguals, UK university students, were presented different types of university-related expressions in English and Russian. The vocabulary types were university-related emotionally-laden expressions (‘Плагиат’/‘Plagiarism’) and neutral words (‘Круг’/‘Circle’). Two main results emerged. First, in L1, SCRs showed a significantly increased electro-dermal activity when participants reacted to university-related words. Emotionality ratings showed contrasts based on stimulus type in both languages. These results indicate that university-related words qualify as a category of emotionally charged expressions. Second, between-language tests showed that electrodermal reactivity was not more reduced in L2 than in L1, which was also mirrored in emotionality ratings. These findings are located within the existing empirical context, and alternative interpretations are provided to further our understanding of how an emotionally salient L2 context contributes to shifts from mother tongue dominance to an increased emotional power of the second language. 

Key words Bilingualism, emotional reactivity, skin conductance responses, emotionality ratings, university-related expressions 

Language skills in Greek-English bilingual children attending Greek supplementary schools in England

Athanasia Papastergiou, Eirini Sanoudaki, School of Languages, Literatures, Linguistics and Media, Bangor University, Bangor, UK

AbstractMany parents in the UK enrol their children in Greek supplementary schools so the children can learn and maintain the Greek language and culture in parallel with English mainstream education. Despite fears about the effects of this heritage language (Greek) use on children’s skills in the majority language (English), research on these somewhat hidden schools to date is limited and qualitative in nature. The current study is the first quantitative study which examines the effect of attending a Greek supplementary school on the vocabulary and grammar scores of Greek-English bilingual children. We administered a battery of language tests in both languages to 31 Greek-English bilingual children, aged 5–13 years, and closely looked at the participants’ language history using parental questionnaires. Using multiple regression analyses we examine the relationship between relevant variables, such as language use and years in supplementary school and we find that the higher the use of Greek, the higher the scores in the Greek language tasks, although no significant relationship was detected between years in supplementary school and the development of language skills. Crucially, the use of Greek does not negatively predict scores in the English language tasks. Implications of our results and future directions are discussed. 

Key words Heritage language, supplementary school, Greek, bilingualism, language skills, language use 

Conceptual metaphors, plurilingualism and second language acquisition: a refugee education case study

Chrysi Epsimari, Anna Mouti, Hellenic Open University and Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece

AbstractThe purpose of this study is to explore the use of equivalent conceptual metaphors and the correspondent linguistic expressions in refugee students’ L1s and L2s and examine the possible positive effects conceptual metaphors can induce for vocabulary learning and retention in second language learning. Moreover, another aim of the research is to investigate the use of conceptual metaphors as a cross-cultural awareness tool for the case of refugee students and how this may reveal specific aspects of their plurilingual repertoires. The research took place in a non-formal educational center in Kos island, where refugee students attend language courses. The participants of the research were ten refugee students, aged 11–17, who learn English and Greek as L2s. The tools used to collect data were a personal data questionnaire, a metaphor awareness test, a pre-test and post-test before and after the language intervention and a discussion group. The results of the study demonstrate that refugee students are assisted by the existence of equivalent metaphors between their L1 and L2. Furthermore, the use of all languages of the participants promotes cross-cultural awareness and plurilingualism, as similarities not only between languages but also between cultures are found through the existence of equivalent conceptual metaphors.

Key words Cognitive linguistics, conceptual metaphors, second language acquisition, metaphor, refugee education, cross-cultural awareness, plurilingualism 

L2 and L3 motivational systems and their interactions: a study of Tibetan-Chinese-English trilingual learners

Ming Li, Lubei Zhang, School of Foreign Languages, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, People’s Republic of China

Linda Tsung, Department of Chinese Studies, the University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia

AbstractThis study explores Tibetan students’ L2 and L3 motivational systems and their interactions based on the framework of the L2 Motivational Self-System proposed by Dörnyei. Five hundred fifty-two participants were invited to respond to a questionnaire regarding their Chinese (L2) and English (L3) motivational selves, learning experiences and intended learning efforts. Multiple regression analyses revealed that L2 motivational selves and L2 learning experiences could explain 55% variance of L2 intended learning efforts (ILEs); L3 motivational selves and L3 learning experiences can explain 57% variance of L3 ILEs. Positive as well as negative interferences were also found between their L2 and L3 motivational systems. Positive interferences were found between L2 and L3 ILEs, while L3 ought-to self exerted a negative effect on L2 ILEs; L2 positive learning experiences exerted a negative impact on L3 ILEs. But the positive interferences outweighed the negative ones. The findings hold multiple implications for CSL and EFL education in Tibetan areas. 

Key words Tibetan students, motivational system, Chinese, English

Bilingual language use is context dependent: using the Language and Social Background Questionnaire to assess language experiences and test-rest reliability

Aaron Mann, Angela de Bruin, Department of Psychology, University of York, York, UK

Abstract Bilingualism is a multi-faceted experience and bilinguals differ in how they use their languages in daily life. Therefore, assessments of bilingualism that consider the role of (social) context are needed when describing bilinguals. In this study, we evaluated how (reliably) the Language and Social Background Questionnaire (LSBQ; Anderson et al. 2018) describes language experiences of bilinguals living in the UK. Across 163 participants, nine factors were found to describe their daily-life language experiences in different contexts or with different interlocutors. Factors describing language use also correlated with objective English (L2) proficiency. These findings emphasise the need for studies to characterise bilinguals’ daily-life language use in more detail and with a focus on the multi-dimensionality of bilingualism. Test-retest reliability (assessed across two weeks) was moderate to substantial, showing that the LSBQ might be a reliable tool to capture these bilingual experiences.

Key words Bilingualism, language use, Language and Social Background Questionnaire, test-retest reliability

‘I would rather say fighting ㅋㅋ’: discursive analysis of Korean-English language exchange students’ text messages

Hakyoon Lee, Department of World Languages and Cultures, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA

Gyewon Jang, Department of Middle and Secondary Education, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA

Abstract This ethnographic case study has focused on language use in texting out of institutional contexts between voluntary language partners. Within the translanguaging and digital literacies framework, we explored how two pairs of Korean-English language partners practice translanguaging in texting in order to construct their multilingual identities. Their text messages were collected over one year and analyzed using discourse analysis to investigate their co-construction of multilingual repertoires in texting influenced by shared discourses, experiences, and interactional histories in digital spaces and in-person interactions. Our findings present that texting creates a translanguaging space where the learners collaboratively construct their linguistic and cultural repertoires and engage with the broader semiotic options and diverse social discourses. They adopted various strategies of translanguaging to negotiate culturally appropriate language use. This study urges an in-depth understanding of the complex interplay of language use, identities, and social interactions in digital spaces and a reconsideration of multilingual competence and metalinguistic knowledge among language learners in diverse contexts.

Key words Language exchange, translanguaging, digital literacy, Korean, multilingual identities 

Cross-curricular collaboration in a CLIL bilingual context: the perceptions and practices of language teachers and content subject teachers

Phuong Anh Pham, FPT University, Hanoi, Vietnam

Aylin Unaldi, School of Education and Professional Development, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, UK

Abstract Content and Language integrated learning (CLIL) revolves around the dual goal of language acquisition and content knowledge; therefore, the cross-curricular collaboration between language and content teachers is one of the key factors for the success of CLIL education. This study investigates multiple aspects of cross-curricular collaboration in a Vietnamese CLIL program, including teachers’ beliefs about pedagogic roles, professional support provided, and actual cross-curricular collaboration implemented. Data collected from eight teachers through semi-structured interviews were coded for emerging themes using thematic analysis, and relevant documents were analysed as complementary data. The findings indicate that the teachers viewed their pedagogical responsibilities and foci rigidly within their discipline, rather than as a dual-focused role of both language and content teaching. Additionally, a mismatch between professional support provided by the school and by the program designers was identified, indicating insufficient training and supervision in the implementation of the program. Although there was evidence of teacher collaboration, the practice still lacked consistency and systematicity due to issues such as workload, schedule and motivation. The findings from this study have important implications for professional development and curriculum design in CLIL bilingual programs to facilitate successful cross-curricular collaboration.

Key words Content and language integrated learning (CLIL), bilingual education, cross-curricular collaboration, collaboration practice, professional support

Patterns and predictors of code-switching in Singapore preschoolers: a corpus-based study

Dandan Wu, Department of Early Childhood Education, The Education University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong

Liman Cai, Faculty of Education, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, People’s Republic of China

Luyao Liang, Hui Li, School of Education, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia

Abstract This study explored the patterns and predictors of code-switching (CS) in Singapore preschoolers by analyzing the data elicited from an existing early childhood corpus. Altogether 943 cases of CS produced by 111 children aged 2;6, 3;6, 4;6, 5;6, respectively, were analyzed. The results indicated that: (1) ‘insertion’, ‘intersentential’, and ‘backflagging’ were identified as the most common types of CS, whereas‘alternation’ was rarely found; (2) there was a significant age-related increase in the production repertoire, the occurrence rate, the number of children producing CS, the frequency, and the type of CS, and age was confirmed the significant predictor; (3) children from the families with at least one bilingual parent produced the most CS, whereas those from the families without any bilingual parents produced the least; (4) parental bilingualism attitude, storytelling, and singing activities negatively predicted the CS frequency and type, whereas parental language input patterns positively predicted the frequency; and (5) children from the families with parents believing that bilingual education should start from kindergarten years (Ages 3-6) had the highest frequency of CS. These findings have added empirical evidence about CS in a multilingual Asian society and highlighted the impact of parent bilingual input patterns on CS in early childhood.

Key words Code-switching, language input patterns, early bilingualism, Singapore preschoolers

‘Things should be explained so that the students understand them’: adolescent immigrant students’ perspectives on learning the language of schooling in Finland

Raisa Harju-Autti, Marita Mäkinen, Kaisu Rättyä, Faculty of Education and Culture, Tampere University, Finland

AbstractThis article explores the language learning experiences of four recently arrived adolescent plurilingual immigrant students who participated in additional structured linguistic support (SLS) in lower secondary education. The SLS was targeted at creating scaffolding for students who were learning both the language of schooling and the subject-specific content of Finnish basic education. This study applied an interpretative phenomenological approach. Data from interviews conducted twice during the study revealed two phenomenological themes at the core of the students’ language learning experiences in formal and informal contexts. The first theme suggests that schools constituted the most important inclusive environment for learning the language of the new home country; therefore, scaffolding for the students should be organized accordingly. The second theme revolves around the role of Finnish and other languages in plurilingual students’ linguistic repertoires. The findings of this study suggest some pedagogically relevant approaches for supporting students in learning the language of schooling, especially in lower secondary education. 

Key words L2 learning, language of schooling, plurilingualism, scaffolding, inclusion 

Is supporting the needs of emergent bilingual learners in mainstream classes a cultural or linguistic issue? How do policy, curricula, and secondary teacher education programmes in Australia and New Zealand compare

Margaret Gleeson, Faculty of Education, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand

AbstractAotearoa New Zealand and Australia are similar in many ways. Both were colonised by English-speaking British settlers, and English is a national language in each country. In recent years, both countries have become destinations for immigrants speaking languages other than English and international fee-paying students. Both have a chequered history of maintaining the languages of the tangata whenua (people of the land) or aboriginal people. However, their histories and educational systems diverge on educational programmes and practices supporting citizens and newcomers from non-English heritage cultural and linguistic backgrounds. The linguistic and cultural histories of these two countries have shaped educational policies and practices that, in turn, have impacted how teachers are prepared to teach in linguistically and culturally heterogeneous classrooms. This paper reviews approaches found to support emergent bilingual learners, and those that research suggests are culturally sustaining. It then compares educational documents from Australia and NZ against principles drawn from this literature. It asks whether supporting the needs of emergent bilingual learners in mainstream classes in these countries emerges as a cultural or linguistic issue. 

Key words Culturally sustaining pedagogy, academic language, emergent bilinguals, indigenous education, English learners, curriculum  

Working memory and multilingualism: balanced language proficiency predicts verbal working memory

Gabriel Espi-Sanchis, Kate Cockcroft, Department of Psychology, School of Human and Community Development, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

AbstractThis study investigated the relationship between balanced multilingualism and working memory. Specifically, it reports on the relationship between balanced proficiency in speaking, reading and comprehension (across three languages), and verbal and visuospatial working memory in young South African adults. Information about participants’ language experience and proficiency in up to three languages was used to create variables capturing the extent of balance among languages spoken. Participants also completed a comprehensive working memory test battery (tapping verbal and visuospatial storage and processing). While effect sizes were small across all regressions, balanced proficiency among languages had a significant effect on verbal (but not visuospatial) working memory, after controlling for socioeconomic status. The results suggest that multilingualism may lead to domain-specific working memory advantages when processing verbal content. The absence of any domain-general effects supports the scepticism surrounding a bilingual effect on working memory (and executive function more generally). The implications of these findings for theories of working memory are discussed. 

Key words Balanced proficiency, bilingual advantage, bilingualism, multilingualism, working memory 

The ideological foundations of Breton and Lower Sorbian language revitalization through education and their consequences for new speakers

Michael Hornsby, Joanna Chojnicka, Faculty of English, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, Poznan, Poland

Nicole Dołowy-Rybińska, Polish Academy of Sciences in Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland

Jeanne Toutous, Faculté de Droit et de Science Politique, University of Rennes I, Rennes, France

Abstract Breton (Brittany, France) and Lower Sorbian (Brandenburg, Germany) are two of the many endangered minority languages currently undergoing revitalization. In their cases, given that intergenerational transmission in a family setting has mostly ceased, language revitalization takes the form of educational initiatives, such as the immersion program Diwan in Brittany and the bilingual program Witaj in Brandenburg. The article argues that the differences in language ideologies and attitudes of language revitalizers, which form the often unexpressed and unaddressed ideological foundations of these programs, have led to divergences in results of revitalization of Breton and Lower Sorbian.

Key words Bilingual education, Breton, ideological clarification, immersion education, Lower Sorbian, new speakers 

Evidence for the interdependence hypothesis: a longitudinal study of biliteracy development in a CLIL/bilingual setting

Adrián Granados, Francisco Lorenzo, Department of Philology and Translation, Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Sevilla, Spain

Antonio Lorenzo-Espejo, Departamento de Organización Industrial y Gestión de Empresas II, Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingeniería, Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain

AbstractHowever influential the interdependence hypothesis has become in bilingual research, it still lacks full empirical support. This longitudinal study explores the parallels in the biliteracy development (L1 Spanish and L2 English) of 20 students in a European immersion programme (i.e. CLIL) over a two-year period. A bilingual learner corpus of history narratives, based on history curriculum content, was collected during ninth and tenth grade. These essays were processed with MultiAzterTest, a state-of-the-art language analysis tool, and a Pearson correlation analysis was conducted to determine if any dimensions evolved in unison in both languages. The results show that some dimensions – length measures, nominalisation, subordination and lexical development – evolve in a similar fashion, thus supporting the interdependence and the common underlying proficiency hypotheses. Additionally, the results of a mixed-model analysis confirm that the fixed effect of time and language on such progress is significant, unlike the random effects introduced by the students. 

Key words Interdependence hypothesis, common underlying proficiency hypothesis, biliteracy development, nominalisation, subordination, lexical development 

The extent and predictors of linguistically responsive teaching in Southwest China

Qian Liu, Laboratory for Education and Society, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium

Fatma Zehra Colak, Center For Migration and Intercultural Studies, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium

Orhan Agirdag, Laboratory for Education and Society, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; Department of Education Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands

AbstractThe study of multilingualism has gained prominence due to increases in linguistically diverse student populations. This paper aims to contribute to research on multilingualism by addressing schoolteachers’ beliefs and practices related to linguistic diversity. A unique sample of 606 teachers across ten minority-dominant schools from Southwest China participated in the survey study. The results show that schoolteachers hold both monolingual and multilingual beliefs. Teachers’ beliefs are mainly positive about multilingual education, and they favor supporting multilingual teachers. However, students’ home languages are viewed as the barrier to the school success. Furthermore, many teachers rarely implement linguistically responsive teaching practices. A moderate correlation was found between teachers’ beliefs and linguistically responsive teaching practices. Additionally, regression analyses show that teachers’ linguistically responsive teaching practices can be predicted by age, gender, language background, travel experience, international news exposure, and culturally relevant teacher training. These findings indicate an urgent need for teachers to participate in professional development to become better equipped to advocate for multilingualism and effectively address the realities of language minority students. 

Key words Multilingualism, schoolteachers, beliefs, linguistically responsive teaching, China

Teaching responsive to play and linguistic diversity in early childhood education: considerations on theoretical grounds

Anne Kultti, Department of Education, Communication and Learning, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden

AbstractThe present article takes on the contemporary challenge of equalizing early childhood education (ECE). Research has particularly highlighted this in relation to children having the majority language as an additional language during the early years. The purpose here is to create knowledge regarding how multilingual interaction, teaching, and learning can be seen as a unit in ECE by drawing on the concept of play-responsive teaching and a dynamic perspective on bilingualism. This encompasses teaching as an activity responsive to play, children’s agency, and language use as critical to promoting learning and thereby social justice in ECE. On theoretical grounds, commonalities between play-responsive teaching and a dynamic perspective on languaging are considered. Merging the frameworks, the concept of play-responsive teaching is extended toward also being responsive to all semiotic resources in the group in order to increase children’s experiential basis and thereby to counter social injustices. The study contributes to grounding a pedagogy acknowledging and promoting extended linguistic repertoires for theorizing teaching and learning. Understanding multilingualism in ECE as something that cannot be separated from the context and teaching responsive to play, is discussed.

Key words Agency, early childhood education, inequal learning opportunities, play-responsive teaching, translanguaging

Language activation in dual language schools: the development of subject-verb agreement in the English and Spanish of heritage speaker children

Michele Goldin, Graduate School of Education, Touro College, New York, United States

AbstractCross-linguistically, monolingual children produce target-like inflected verbs much earlier than they can reliably distinguish between singular and plural subject-verb agreement morphology in comprehension (i.e. Johnson, V., J. de Villiers, and H. Seymour. 2005. “Agreement Without Understanding? The Case of Third Person Singular /s/.” First Language 25: 317-333; Pérez-Leroux, A. T. 2005. “Number Problems in Children.” In Proceedings of the 2005 Annual Conference of the Canadian Linguistics Association, edited by C. Gurski, 1-12. http://hfcfb9d430792b314487fsbbk9wu0kfnkf6bkb.fzzh.libproxy.ruc.edu.cn/wp-content/uploads/actes-2005/Perez-Leroux.pdf). In heritage speakers, Spanish agreement morphology shows optionality due to reduced input, especially when children transition to English schooling (i.e. Montrul, S. 2004. The Acquisition of Spanish: Morphosyntactic Development in Monolingual and Bilingual L1 Acquisition and Adult L2 Acquisition. Amsterdam: John Benjamins; Jacobson, P. 2012. “The Effects of Language Impairment on the use of Direct Object Pronouns and Verb Inflections in Heritage Spanish Speakers: A Look at Attrition, Incomplete Acquisition and Maintenance.” Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 15 (1): 22–38). We investigate how simultaneous heritage bilingual children’s interpretation and use of subject-verb agreement in English and Spanish may be modulated by increased input and activation of Spanish in dual language education (DLE). 125 participants aged 3–7 (42 heritage children, 40 English monolinguals, 39 Spanish-dominant children) took part in a fill-in-the-blanks task and a picture-matching task. In English, bilingual comprehension accuracy surpassed that of the monolinguals. In Spanish, bilingual production lagged behind that of the Spanish-dominant children and language output was found to be a greater predictor of productive accuracy than increased activation of Spanish in DLE. The implications of these results for theories of bilingualism and DLE are discussed. 

Key words Morphology, subject-verb agreement, heritage language, dual language education 

Unilateral translanguaging: teachers’ language use, perceptions, and experience in a Portuguese-English two-way immersion program

Mariana Lima Becker, Department of Teaching, Curriculum & Society, Lynch School of Education and Human Development, Chestnut Hill, MA, USA

Chris K. Chang-Bacon, Department of Curriculum, Instruction & Special Education, School of Education and Human Development, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA

Gabrielle Oliveira, Harvard Graduate School of Education, Cambridge, MA, USA

AbstractThis study documents the notion of unilateral translanguaging–the configuration of translanguaging spaces to disproportionately privilege a dominant language or its speakers. We analyze four teachers’ translanguaging practices in a Portuguese-English two-way immersion (TWI) program in the United States. Rather than focusing on whether and how translanguaging occurs, we highlight temporality and purpose to explore when and why participants engaged in translingual practices. Data stem from a three-year ethnographic project and include semi-structured interviews and classroom observations. We found that translanguaging mainly occurred during Portuguese lessons, during which teachers used English to give directions, discipline students, and give important announcements, linking English use to moments of high authority. English-dominant students’ translanguaging practices also tended to be more readily accepted than those of Portuguese-dominant students. Furthermore, in contrast to prior research on language status as unconscious bias, our findings demonstrate teachers’ keen awareness of practices and policies that disproportionately benefit English-dominant students. Still, structural conditions, parental power dynamics, and pressure to maintain the program left the focal teachers feeling unequipped to interrupt these practices. This research highlights how educators’ practices and perceptions of translanguaging interact with structural features of bilingual education programming as factors that may disrupt or reproduce inequities. 

Key words Translanguaging, two-way immersion, language status, teacher, Portuguese

Second language reading and self-efficacy in bilingual and musical instruction. A study of reading abilit

Javier Ávila-López, English and German Department, Arts Faculty, University of Cordoba, Córdoba, Spain

Roberto Espejo-Mohedano, Mathematics Department, University of Cordoba, Córdoba, Spain

Abstract The connections between music and language are still to be clarified in educational terms; despite the great deal of literature on the common mechanisms underlying their working in learning, memory, and some other related factors, there is not robust research on their combined potential. Educational bilingualism and musical instruction have been shown to facilitate reading in a foreign language. Our study intends to throw light on their potential for reading in a second language and the relationship they keep to self-efficacy, a key factor in such a complex realm as learning a foreign language. The silent reading of 252 Spanish secondary school students was examined to show if bilingual instruction, music training, and self-efficacy influenced second language silent reading fluency (L2 SRF). Our ANOVA analysis shows bilingual instruction having the strongest influence of the three groups analysed, followed by the music training and the standard group. Self-efficacy was also included in the MANOVA model as a covariate and was shown to have an influence on L2 SRF. The study also revealed a significant influence of bilingual and musical instruction on self-efficacy, which may partially account for their effect on L2 SRF.

Key words Bilingualism, CLIL, bilingual instruction, musical instruction, silent reading fluency, foreign language, phonological awareness, contextual word recognition 

Students attending monolingual, bilingual, or trilingual schools at secondary level: does it influence their academic performance in a university bilingual Biology module? 

Pablo Antonio Archila, Silvia Restrepo, Vice-Presidency of Research and Creation, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia

Giovanna Danies, Department of Design, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia

Anne-Marie Truscott de Mejía, School of Education, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia

Jorge MolinaJean-Marc Dewaele, Department of Biological Sciences, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia

Abstract In many higher education institutions in countries where English is the second or foreign language; English for Academic Purposes (EAP), English-medium instruction (EMI), Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), and first language-English bilingual modules are attracting interest because of their potential to contribute to the internationalization of higher education. However, it is still not very clear whether students' monolingual, bilingual, or trilingual abilities really influence their academic performance in these modules. This study aims to determine if there is a relationship between participants' academic performance and their type of school attended at secondary level (monolingual, bilingual, trilingual) or age. The total sample of this correlational research was 177 undergraduates (105 females and 72 males, 15–30 years old) who took a university Spanish-English bilingual Biology module at a prestigious Colombian university. Here, we report the results obtained on 2.5 years of data generated by students' quizzes and exams. Independent t-tests showed that the grades obtained in quizzes and exams by the undergraduates who attended monolingual schools at secondary level were slightly lower than those of the university students who attended bilingual or trilingual schools, but there were no statistical differences between them.

Key words Academic achievement, bilingual education, Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), English for Academic Purposes (EAP), English-medium instruction (EMI), higher education 

期刊简介

The Journal is multidisciplinary and focuses on all aspects of bilingualism and bilingual education around the world. Theoretical and conceptual analysis, foundational and applied research using qualitative or quantitative approaches, critical essays, and comparative book reviews are all invited. Contributions from varied disciplines are welcome: linguistics, sociology, psychology, education, law, women’s studies, history and economics, informatics included.

该杂志是多学科的，关注全世界双语和双语教育的各个方面。理论和概念分析、使用定性或定量方法的基础研究和应用研究、评论文章和比较书评均受邀参加。欢迎来自不同学科的投稿：语言学、社会学、心理学、教育学、法学、妇女研究、历史与经济学、信息学等。

Book reviews should be no more than 2000 words and should include the full bilbiographic details of the reviewed book.

书评不应超过2000字，并应包括完整的传记详细审查的书。

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